What region of the world is Saudi Arabia? Cuisine of Saudi Arabia. Sex and age structure of the population

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the richest oil country in the world and among the driest and hottest places on the planet. The country is the spiritual center of the Arab world and the Islamic religion. It was here that the Prophet Muhammad was born in the city of Medina in 540. In Saudi Arabia, everything begins and ends with religion. It is extremely strongly woven into the way of life and laws. The country professes one of the strictest branches of Islam, called Wahhabism.

Form of government. Saudi Arabia is a kingdom, and more precisely an absolute monarchy. All power in the state, including religious rule, is concentrated in the hands of the monarch, and in this case in the hands of the Saudi dynasties. As understood from the very meaning, the country bears the name of the Al-Saud dynasty.

Geographical location, boundaries and dimensions. Saudi Arabia is the largest Arab country in the world. It covers an area of ​​2,218,000 sq. km.
and is the 13th largest in the world. The country is located entirely in the tropics and occupies almost the entire area of ​​the Arabian Peninsula. It is located approximately between 32.09° and 16.22° north latitude and between 34.34° and 55.40° east longitude. The country borders Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. In addition, it is in close proximity to three other states - Bahrain, and. The country is connected to Bahrain through a bridge, and has access to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.

Climate and water. Saudi Arabia falls entirely within the borders. The local climate is characterized by year-round high temperatures, constantly sunny weather and scanty precipitation. Temperatures in the capital Riyadh are very high. They vary between 21° in the coldest month of January and 40-45°C in the summer months from May to September. Precipitation reaches its maximum of 25 mm in April. Between June and the end of September there is usually not a drop of rain. Only about 100 mm of rain falls throughout the year, but locally in the country it does not rain for years. Saudi Arabia is very poor in water, and its vast territory does not have a single permanent river or lake. The main sources of fresh water are desalination of sea water and artesian wells.

Relief. Saudi Arabia has predominantly flat terrain in its eastern parts, but in the west it is mainly occupied by mountains of varying heights. The Hejaz and Asir mountains follow the coastline of the Red Sea, from which it is separated by a narrow, dry and hot plain. The highest peak in the country is called Jebel Sevda. It is located in the southwestern parts of Saudi Arabia in Mount Asir, 70 km. from the Red Sea, and rises to 3133 m in height. The country's coastline is moderately dissected towards both the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. In the immediate vicinity of the coast there are many small islands with low sea level and deserted appearance.

Nature. The landscapes of Saudi Arabia are likened to those in Egypt, and. Almost the entire country is occupied by deserts and semi-deserts. The vast sand dunes seem endless. There are practically no forests. The only exception is oases, which are lush greenery in the desert near some random source. The mountains are also bare and barren. Even at high altitudes above sea level, vegetation is quite rare. This is no coincidence - Saudi Arabia is among the driest and hottest countries on the planet. The landscape of this Arab country is dominated by two large deserts - the Great Nefud in the north and the even harsher Rub al-Khali in the south. In some parts of the country, thanks to the desalination of sea water, large areas have been reclaimed from the desert and turned into cultivated land. Few creatures can survive in such conditions. The most well adapted are camels and various types of snakes, lizards and insects. They can survive without water for quite a long time, and this is the most important condition for maintaining integrity in this harsh environment. The constantly warm sea waters off the coast of Saudi Arabia are full of life. A little below the surface of the Red Sea there are beautiful ones. The waters are clean and clear. Thousands of species of fish and other marine life live here. Locally on the coasts (especially on the Red Sea), beautiful beaches with golden sand have formed.

Population and settlements. The population of Saudi Arabia exceeds 25.7 million people. Despite this, given its huge area, the country is very sparsely populated. Huge areas are deserted. Cities like the capital Riyadh have a large population accumulation. The city has almost 5,300,000 inhabitants, and the urban agglomeration is home to another 1,500,000 people. Other major cities are Jeddah, Mecca and Medina. All of them are located in the western part of the country, and Jeddah is located on the very coast. The population of Saudi Arabia is entirely Muslim. This is probably the most religious Arab country. It is no coincidence that the most important Muslim city, Mecca, is also located here. The official language in the country is Arabic. A characteristic feature of the local population is the lack of equality between men and women.

Economy. Saudi Arabia is a rich country that derives its economic prosperity entirely from its vast oil reserves. The country ranks first in the world in terms of deposits and production, and therefore Saudi Arabia can boast of a gross domestic product that in 2010 exceeds $24,000 per capita. Mostly men participate in the local economy, and women only by exception. There are a large number of foreigners working in the country (about 1/3 of all workers in Saudi Arabia). They are also male and predominantly from Islamic countries in the area. Literacy for men reaches almost 85%, but for women it is quite lower - about 71%.

Conservative society. Saudi Arabia is often criticized for its treatment of women. Their role in it is still extremely weak and unequal. They are not allowed to travel unless they are accompanied by a spouse or male relative. In addition, they cannot work without permission from their spouse. The most embarrassing fact is that women in Saudi Arabia cannot undergo medical operations without the permission of their spouse! It is prohibited to listen to music or smoke in the country. Practicing another religion is a crime, and homosexuality is punishable by death!

Tourism in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is not a very popular destination. The number of Western tourists is insignificant. Despite this, tourism is a significant sector of the local economy, especially during the Hajj - the largest religious worship in the world. It takes place between the 10th and 15th of the month of Dhul-Hijjah. A characteristic feature of Saudi Arabia is that, unlike most countries in the world, the country uses the Islamic calendar, whose year is 11 days shorter than the year of the Gregorian calendar. For this reason, Hajj is not associated with a specific date in the Western calendar. During the Hajj, the Muslim holy city of Mecca attracts millions of visitors. An important feature is the fact that Mecca, the holy places, also the second most important city for Muslims, Medina, are absolutely prohibited for Muslims!

The most popular seaside resort in Saudi Arabia is located on the shores of the Red Sea. It is called Jeddah and has many hotels. Those looking for beautiful and expansive beaches, however, may be left a little disappointed by Jeddah. The city does have a picturesque coastline, but lacks a beach strip. There are indeed beautiful beaches and excellent coral reefs for diving, but they are located in the north of Jeddah. There you will find yacht ports and even hotel complexes with their own beaches, from which you can get to the coral reefs without even leaving the hotel.

The biggest advantages of Saudi Arabia:

Saudi Arabia is a sunny country. No matter what part of the year you travel, sunny and warm weather is guaranteed. The underwater biodiversity in the coastal coral reefs is amazing, and the landscapes and architecture seem to come straight out of the fairy tale “Aladdin and the Magic Lamp”.

Biggest disadvantages:

The culture and way of life in Saudi Arabia is too different from anything a person can see in Western countries. Local Society
extremely conservative and for this reason a person risks getting himself into serious trouble with behavior that is considered completely normal and acceptable in America or other parts of the world. In addition, not everyone can adapt to extremely high temperatures, which can reach up to 50°C in the summer months!

Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), N. A. Bozhko (Nature: geology), A. V. Sedov (Historical sketch), G. G. Kosach (Historical sketch), G. L Ghukasyan (Economy), V. D. Nesterkin (Armed Forces), V. S. Nechaev (Health), M. N. Suvorov (Literature), E. S. Yakushkina (Architecture and Fine Arts)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), N. A. Bozhko (Nature: geology), A. V. Sedov (Historical sketch), G. G. Kosach (Historical sketch); >>

SAUDI ARABIA(Arabic: Al-Arabiya al-Saudiyah), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya al-Saudiyah).

General information

S.A. is a state in the South-West. Asia, on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders in the north with Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, in the east with Qatar, in the southeast with the UAE and Oman, in the south with Yemen. In the west it is washed by the Red Sea, in the east by the waters of the Persian Gulf. Pl. OK. 2.15 million km 2 (official data; according to other sources, from 1.6 to 2.4 million km 2, the borders of S.A. in the south and southeast pass through deserts and are not clearly defined). Us. 30.8 million people (2014). The capital is Riyadh. Official language – Arabic. The monetary unit is the Saudi Arabia. rial Adm.-terr. division – 13 adm. districts.

Administrative-territorial division (2013)

Administrative region	Area, thousand km 2	Population, million people	Administrative center
Asir	76,7	2,1	Abha
Oriental	672,5	4,5	Dammam (Ed-Dammam)
Jizan	11,671	1,5	Jizan
Medina	152	2	Medina
Mecca	153,1	7,7	Mecca
Najran	149,5	0,6	Najran
Tabuk	146,1	0,9	Tabuk
Hail	103,9	0,6	Hail
El Baha	9,9	0,4	El Baha
El Jawf	100,2	0,5	El Jawf
El Qasim	58	1,3	Buraidah
Al-Hudud al-Shamaliyya	111,8	0,3	Arar
Riyadh	404,2	7,5	Riyadh

S.A. – member of the UN (1945), LAS (1945), IMF (1957), IBRD (1957), OPEC (1960), GCC (Cooperation Council of the Arab States of the Persian Gulf; 1981), OIC (Organization Islamic Cooperation; 1969; until 2011 Organization of the Islamic Conference), WTO (2005).

Political system

S.A. is a unitary state. Absolute theocratic. monarchy.

Head of state, legislator. and will fulfill it. power - the king. He personifies the power of the Saudi family. The special position of this family is secured by an act of constitution. character - Basic Nizam (regulations) on power 1992. The king elects the crown prince and removes him by decree. The king can transfer part of his powers to him by decree.

Execute power is exercised by the king and the Council of Ministers headed by him.

As an advisory body under the king and the government there is an Advisory Council (AC), whose functions include the development of recommendations on socio-economic issues. development of the country, examination of draft regulations and international. agreements. The council consists of 150 members appointed by the king for 4 years.

Political there are no parties in S.A.

Nature

Shores of the Persian Hall. and Krasny M. preim. low, sandy, slightly rugged.

Relief

Plateau-like plains are widespread, gradually decreasing from 1000–1300 m in the west to 200–300 m in the east and weakly dissected by dry river valleys (wadis). To the center. parts are dominated by stratified accumulative-denudation plains, bordered on the east by a strip of cuesta hills, including Tuvaik (heights up to 1143 m, benches up to 300–400 m). So... The area is occupied by the Najd high plateau. 400–1000 m with separation mountain ranges (Jabal Shammar, Harrat Khaybar, altitudes up to 1850 m), sand, pebble and rocky deserts (Hamads, including the El Hamad Desert), wadi beds.

On horizontally lying sedimentary rocks, stratified accumulative plains are formed, overlain by loose Quaternary ones, mainly. sandy, sediments. Processes of arid denudation and accumulation are typical. Forms of aeolian relief (ridges, dunes and dune-lumpy sands) occupy vast areas in the Big Nefud, Little Nefud (Dekhna), Nafud-ed-Dakhi (Nefud-Dakhi) and Rub al-Khali deserts, where high dunes occur. up to 200 m. In the west. parts of S.A., parallel to the coast of the Red Sea, stretch the mountains of Ash-Shifa, Hijaz, Asir (up to 3032 m high - the highest in S.A.) with steep, highly dissected western. slopes and gentle eastern ones. Lava plateaus (harrats) are common. The mountains drop down in steps to the narrow (up to 70 km) coastal lowland of Tihama with sandy deserts, rocky outcrops and salt marshes. In the east along the coast of the Persian Hall. The flat Al-Hasa lowland stretches (up to 150 km wide) with rocky and sandy deserts, saline depressions (sebkhs) and wetlands.

Geological structure and minerals

C. A. is located within the north-east. parts of the Precambrian African-Arabian platform. To the west and to the center. partly the rocks of the Nubian-Arabian belt of the platform foundation protrude onto the surface - gneisses and migmatites of the Archean - Lower Proterozoic and the Upper Proterozoic complex, in which metamorphosed volcanic-sedimentary strata and granitoids predominate; several stand out. suture zones with the development of melange and ophiolite covers. In the north-east direction, the basement rocks plunge under the platform cover of the Arabian Plate - Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Paleogene terrigenous and anhydrite-carbonate (partly siliceous-carbonate) deposits, forming in the interior. areas of S.A. monoclines. B east part of the plate is the Gaza structural terrace, where a meridional system of swell-like uplifts (En-Nala and others) can be traced in a sedimentary cover up to 7 km thick. In the south there is the Rub al-Khali syneclise (precipitation thickness up to 8 km). Along the coast of the Persian Hall. Thick Neogene molasse of the Mesopotamian foredeep are developed. In the north, west and south there are Late Cenozoic continental basalts.

Main subsoil wealth - oil and natural combustible gas. Almost the entire territory of C.A. is included in Persian Gulf oil and gas basin; open several times dozens of fields, among them the largest in terms of oil reserves Gavar, Saffaniya-Khafji, Manifa , Abqaiq . There are known deposits of ores of copper, zinc, gold, silver, lead (pyrite copper-zinc with gold and silver El-Masan, Jebel Said, Mahd-ed-Dahab; copper-zinc Xnaygiya, as well as gold El-Amar, Bulgah, etc. .). C.A. owns part of the unique Atlantis-II sulfide copper-zinc deposit with lead, silver and gold in the Red Sea axial rift depression (115 km west of Jeddah). Main Iron ore reserves are associated with the Wadi Sawawin deposit in the northwest. There are deposits of bauxite (Ez-Zabira in the north), phosphorites (in the northwest), rock salt and gypsum (the coast of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf), pyrite, barite, native sulfur, magnesite, marble, limestone, clay, sand and others. Occurrences of tin, tungsten, rare metals and rare earth ores.

Climate

Prem. tropical, sharply continental, dry, in the north – subtropical. Summer is very hot, winter is warm. Wed. January temperatures (in Riyadh) 14 °C, July 35 °C (absolute maximum 54 °C). Frosts rarely occur in the north. The difference between night and day temperatures is significant. Precipitation almost everywhere is less than 100 mm per year, in Rub al-Khali - less than 35 mm (in the central regions mainly in spring, in the north - in winter); in the mountains - up to 400 mm per year, maximum in spring and summer. The amount of precipitation varies greatly from year to year, in some areas. they have been missing for years. Tihama is characterized by high relative humidity. Sultry south. The Samum wind in spring and early summer often causes sandstorms and a strong increase in temperature. Winter sowing the shemal wind brings a decrease in temperature to the east. areas.

Inland waters

Almost the entire S.A. is a drainage region without permanent rivers, temporarily. watercourses form only after intense rains. The largest wadis are Es-Sirhan, Er-Rumma, Ed-Dawasir, Bisha, Najran. After rare rainfalls, wadis sometimes turn into powerful mud flows. Oases are associated with wadis.

Ch. Groundwater and groundwater play a role in the country's water supply, providing more than 95% of water intake. Shallow groundwater accumulates in loose sedimentary strata and weathering crust, Ch. arr. in the western, relatively moist mountainous part of S.A. Osn. Water reserves are associated with underground aquifers located at great depths (150–1500 m) over an area of ​​approx. 1.5 million km 2. On b. Part of the country's territory is supplied with water through artesian wells and deep wells. Groundwater extraction significantly exceeds the volume of its renewal.

Annually renewable water resources amount to 2.4 km 3, water availability is low - 928 m 3 / person. per year (2006). The annual water intake is 23.7 km 3, of which 88% is used in the village. x-ve, 9% - in municipal water supply, 3% - in industry. Partial coverage of the fresh water deficit is achieved through sea desalination. waters (S.A. is a leader in the field of seawater desalination: 1.03 km 3 per year, 2006), reuse treated wastewater for villages. farms and industrial water consumption

Soils, flora and fauna

Primitive desert soils predominate; there is no soil cover over vast areas; salt crusts are widespread. In the north, coarse-skeletal subtropical species are developed. sierozems and gray-brown soils, in depressions – solonchaks and meadow-solonchak soils.

Vegetation is predominant. tropical desert, semi-desert in the north. White saxaul, juzgun, shrub wormwood, aristida grasses and wild millet grow in places on the sands, lichens grow on hamads, wormwood and astragalus grow on lava plateaus, solitary acacias, prosopis grow along the wadi beds and in interdune depressions, and tamarisk grows in more saline places. ; Along the coasts and salt marshes there are halophytic shrubs (Sveda, Calotropis). Manna lichen is widespread. Loose sands are almost completely devoid of plants. cover. In spring and wet years, the role of ephemerals in the composition of vegetation increases. In the mountains, in the southwest, there are areas of savannas (acacia, commiphora, olive), above 2000 m evergreen shrubs are typical, from altitudes. 2500 m – Afroalpine vegetation with the participation of juniper. In the oases there are groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, grains (wheat, barley) and garden crops. Deserts and semi-deserts occupy 62% of the territory, herbaceous ecosystems and shrubs - 33%, forests - approx. 2%.

S.A. is home to 77 species of mammals (wolf, jackal, fennec fox, hyena, caracal, sand cat, wild ass onager, antelope, gazelle, hyrax, hare, etc.). There is a large population of domesticated camels (dromedaries). There are many rodents (gerbils, gophers, jerboas, etc.) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles). 10 species of mammals are endangered, including the Arabian oryx (oryx), Nubian (mountain) goat, and Arabian gerbil. There are 125 species of nesting birds (larks, sandgrouses, bustards, kites, vultures, eagles, etc.), of which 13 are endangered. To the east areas - foci of locusts.

Condition and protection of the environment

For b. Particularly pasture lands are characterized by desertification processes. Wind erosion of varying intensity is widespread, and secondary soil salinization is to a lesser extent. Due to groundwater pumping, aquifers are depleted. On the coast of the Persian Hall. there is an increased risk of oil contamination.

The system of protected areas includes 128 various objects. status, including 3 national parks (Asir, Harrat, and Farasan in the archipelago of the same name), many nature reserves and reserves, as well as extensive wildlife management areas in the north of the country and in the Rub al-Khali desert. In the national In Harrat Park and the Uruk-Bani-Maarid Nature Reserve, gazelles and oryx, which were almost completely exterminated in the country, have been reintroduced.

Population

The indigenous population makes up 74.1% of us. S.A., mainly saudi arabs, as well as speakers of the South Arabian languages ​​Mahra and Shahari (0.3%). Immigrants and their descendants (including Filipinos, Punjabis, Urdus, Persians, Palestinians, Lebanese, Syrians, Egyptians, Sudanese, Somalis, Swahili) account for 25.9% (2010 census).

According to the official data (2013), out of the total number of us. 20.3 million people – citizens of S.A. (approx. 68%), approx. 9.6 million people – immigrants (approx. 32%). The population increased almost 10 times between 1950 and 2014 (3.1 million people in 1950; 5.8 in 1970; 16.1 in 1990). Natural growth of us. 15.5 per 1000 inhabitants. (2014). The birth rate is 18.8 per 1000 inhabitants, the mortality rate is 3.3 per 1000 inhabitants. The fertility rate is 2.2 children per woman; baby mortality rate is 14.6 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, there is a high proportion of people of working age (15–64 years) – 69.2%; the share of children (under 15 years old) is 27.6%, people over 65 years old are 3.2%. Wed. life expectancy is 74.8 years (men - 72.8, women - 76.9 years). There are 121 men for every 100 women. Wed. density of us. St. 15 people/km2 (2014; some oases have a density of more than 1000 people/km2). The most densely populated areas are off the coast of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, as well as around Riyadh and to the northeast of it, where the main cities are located. oil and gas production areas. More than 60% of the country's territory (the main part of the desert) does not have a permanent settled population. Share of mountains us. 83% (2014). Largest cities (million people, 2010): Riyadh 5.2, Jeddah 3.4 (Makkah region), Mecca 1.5, Medina 1.1, Dammam 0.9, Al-Hofuf 0.7 (Eastern district), Taif 0.6 (Mecca district), Tabuk 0.5. Economically active us. OK. 11.3 million people (2013; including about 5.3 million – citizens of S.A.). In the employment structure, the service sector accounts for 71.3%, industry – 23.3%, p. farms – 5.4% (2013). Unemployment rate 6% (2014; among citizens of SA 11.8%). Since 1996, the government has implemented a policy of limiting the hiring of foreigners. labor force and its replacement by citizens of S.A. - so-called. Saudization of personnel (most successfully carried out in the public sector).

Religion

OK. 90% of the population are Muslims, including 85–90% are Sunnis (mainly Hanbalis), 10–15% are Shiites: Imamis, Zaydis, a significant Ismaili minority (approx. 2.5%) (2014, estimate ). Representatives of other faiths include Christians (Catholics 2.5%, Protestants 1.5%, Orthodox 0.1%), Hindus (0.6%), Bahais (0.1%). The public practice of all religions except Islam and the opening of non-Muslim temples and houses of worship are prohibited. On the territory of S.A., in the cities of Mecca and Medina, there are Ch. shrines of Islam. Pilgrimage to the shrines of S.A. is made by St. 1.4 million Muslims per year (2014).

Historical sketch

The territory of Saudi Arabia from ancient times to the first centuries AD. uh

The oldest traces of human activity (probably ca. 1.3 million years ago), dating back to the Oldowan (see. Olduvai culture), known in the north (near the city of Shuwaikhitiya) and southwest (Bir Hima, Najran region) of the modern territory. S.A.; finds from the Acheulian era are at its center. and east parts, the Middle Paleolithic - everywhere. The lack of finds from the Late Paleolithic may be due to unfavorable climatic conditions. conditions.

Since the Neolithic (ca. 8th millennium BC), connections have been recorded with the territory of the Levant, from where, apparently, there was population migration and the exchange of obsidian with the territory of Yemen, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. Petroglyphs (mainly hunting scenes) have been known since the 7th millennium. Since the 6th thousand, ties with the South have been strengthened. Mesopotamia (Ubaid culture), North-East. and South-West. Arabia.

In the Early Metal Age (from the end of the 4th millennium), monumental above-ground tombs, sanctuaries and, probably, associated anthropomorphic stone steles appeared. In the 3rd millennium, stable ties were established with Mesopotamia. Among the finds are examples of sculpture and glyptics, items made of lapis lazuli, carnelian (mainly imported from Mesopotamia, from the territory of Afghanistan, Gujarat). Coast of the Persian Hall. was part of the Dilmun civilization zone.

The oases of Hijaz, Teima (now Taima), Dedan (now El-Ula), Madyan have been continuously inhabited since the 3rd–2nd millennium. From the beginning. 1st millennium they played an important role on the “route of incense” (from the territory of Yemen to the Mediterranean), they are mentioned in Assyrian. cuneiform sources of the 8th–7th centuries, the Old Testament. From the 7th century inscriptions appear in local languages ​​using varieties of the North Arabian alphabetic script. In 550, a number of oases were conquered by the Babylonian king Nabonidus, who made Teima his residence for 10 years. At the site of Kraia (probably the capital of Teima), a “stele of Nabonidus” was found with an inscription in Akkadian. and the image of the king in front of the symbols of the Babylonian gods Sin, Shamash, Ishtar. Other cuneiform texts mentioning Nabonidus and rock inscriptions containing greetings to the “king of Babylon” are also known from Teima. In the 5th century these oases became dependent on Achaemenid states. In the 4th–1st centuries. important political The power was the state of Lihyan with its capital Dedan (about 10 giant stone statues of its rulers have been preserved). From the 2nd century. BC e. part of the North-West Arabia was part of Nabatean kingdom; Hegra (now Madain Salih) was a major city; numerous people are associated with it. rock tombs (analogues in Petra). In 106 n. e. The Nabataean kingdom became part of Rome. empires.

The central and southwestern parts of the modern territory. S.A. belonged to the South civilization. Arabia; one of its centers was in the Najran oasis (first mentioned around 700). The center of the Mukhaamir tribal union was located in the city of Raghmat, from the 6th century. The Amir tribe began to play a dominant role in the oasis. After a series of wars, Najran became dependent on the South Arabian kingdom of Ma'in. Raghmata is mentioned among the cities conquered by the Romans during the campaign of Aelius Gallus in “Happy Arabia” in 25/24 BC. e. In the 1st–5th centuries. n. e. Najran was under the rule of the state of Saba and Himyarite kingdom .

Oasis of Qaryat al-Fau (Qaryat al-Fau; mentioned from the late 4th century BC) in the north-west. border of the Rub al-Khali desert from the first centuries AD. e. was the center of the Kinda tribal union and a point on the “path of incense” left in the beginning. 4th century, probably due to the drying up of fresh water sources. Residential areas, a market, sanctuaries (including those of the supreme god Kahl), and a necropolis were excavated here. Inscriptions in Dedan, Nabatean, Sabaean languages, coins (including local mintage), bronze, stone, terracotta images of Greek. and Greco-Egyptian. gods, Sabaean funerary sculpture, frescoes, glassware, semi-precious stones, gold, silver and other finds demonstrate a combination of local and Western Asian, Egyptian, Hellenistic, Roman. traditions.

With the settlement of Saj near the Persian Hall. identify the city of Guerra as an important point in the incense trade system. Finds (including glass and metal dishes, gold and silver jewelry, locally minted coins) indicate the strong influence of Hellenism. A tomb dating from the 1st–2nd centuries was excavated in Ain Javan (north of the modern city of El-Qatif). with numerous jewelry.

Territory of Saudi Arabia in the 4th – early 7th centuries

So... influence on the situation on the Arabian Peninsula in the 4th–7th centuries. provided by external forces, the most important of which were the rival Byzantium and Sasanian Iran. Their confrontation turned the Arabic-speaking states that arose on the periphery of the Arabian Peninsula or within its borders into satellites of one or another of these powers. If formed in 380 and existed until 611 in South. Mesopotamia Lakhmid kingdom, which extended its possessions up to Al-Hasy and officially confessed Nestorianism, was a vassal of Iran, then arose in the East. Palestine Ghassanid kingdom (529–636), which included the north of the Hejaz and adhered to Monophysitism, was a vassal of Byzantium.

One of the forms of external influence on the intra-Arabian situation was the spread of Judaism and Christianity. This impact was felt especially strongly in the south of the peninsula, where, under the influence of Christianized Ethiopia, the local pantheon of deities was unified, which contributed to the emergence of the idea of ​​a single ruler of Heaven and Earth - Rahmanan (his name, modified in accordance with the phonetics of Northern Arabic dialects, later became in the form Rahman is one of the epithets of Allah). At the same time, Judaism penetrated geographically deeper into Arabia than Christianity. If the latter became widespread in the peripheral regions of the peninsula (Lakhmid and Ghassanid kingdoms), then it means. Jewish colonies existed in the oases of the Hijaz (including Medina) and Najd.

However b. parts of the territory of modern times. S.A. still remained pagan. The local pantheon included both male and female deities. Everyday practice was the veneration of stones, trees, stars and celestial phenomena, good and evil spirits as intermediaries between gods and people. Temples and sanctuaries were dedicated to the gods, one of which was the Meccan Kaaba, which gradually turned into a recognized cult center with rituals developing around it, which later became part of the Islamic ritual. The unsuccessful campaign against Mecca in 570 Ethiopians gave this center a special status as a “God-saved” one. King Abraha.

Arabian Peninsula in the 7th–17th century

The prophetic mission of Muhammad, which began in 603–605, transformed politics. geography of the Arabian Peninsula. Its result was the formation of an early Islamic state, which included the entire territory of modern times. Saud. Arabia.

The non-recognition of Muhammad as the Prophet by the Meccan Quraysh forced him to emigrate to Yathrib (now Medina). The Muslim system developed there. dogmatics and rituals (including due to the confrontation with local Jewish tribes), as well as the foundations of a new statehood, family ethics and morality based on the norms of this system, the formation of Muslims began. Ummah. While in Medina, Muhammad made his first conquests, which were limited to the territories neighboring this city. Strengthening your own authority as religions. leader, military leader and politician allowed Muhammad in Jan. 630 return victoriously to Mecca, which recognized his power. By 632 all tribes are centered. Arabia, as well as the population of Asir, Najran and Yemen, converted to Islam, which they contributed to as a soldier. threats and diplomacy. the efforts of its founder. However, Muhammad's first attempts to introduce zakat and sadaqa for the population of the territories under his control caused uprisings. Disputes between the Prophet's closest companions and relatives, which began after his death in 632, ended with the election of Abu Bekr as caliph. He managed to break the resistance of the rebels and pacify the rebel tribes, and the campaign he organized against Byzantium was successful. But his election led to the emergence of the first fault lines within Muslims. community. The preconditions for Shiism have arisen - supporters Ali ibn Abi Talib believed that it was he who should succeed Muhammad, and not Abu Bekr, whom they considered a usurper.

After the death of Abu Bekr, the caliphs were Omar ibn al-Khattab and then Osman ibn al-Affan. The murder of the latter in 656 by opponents of strengthening the role of his clan in the life of the Caliphate marked the beginning of fitna - a turmoil that divided Muslims into Shiites, Kharijites and Sunnis. The power of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who became the new caliph, was immediately challenged by the governor of Syria Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan. His son Hassan, who became caliph after the death of Ali ibn Abi Talib, renounced the title in favor of Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, as a result of which power in the Caliphate passed from the companions and relatives of Muhammad to the Umayyads who ruled in Damascus. Political Muslim center state became the capital of Syria. After the transfer of power in the Caliphate in 747 to the Abbasids, the political center. life of the Islamic world moved to Baghdad. Mecca retained only the status of a religion. center, and the Arabian Peninsula became the periphery of a huge state. education.

The protracted process of disintegration of the Caliphate had a significant impact. influence on politics situation on the Arabian Peninsula. The emergence in 899 of the Qarmatian state in Bahrain, which included Al-Hasa, made possible the further expansion of representatives of this movement in the direction of the Hijaz. In 930 the Qarmatians attacked Mecca and stole ch. the object of worship is the “black stone” (returned only in 952).

After Ahmed ibn Tulun came to power in Egypt in 858, the Tulunid state arose, which also included the Hijaz. With the conquest of Egypt in 969 by the Fatimids, the Hijaz entered their state, in 1171 - into the state of the Ayyubids who replaced the Fatimids, in 1250 - into Mamluk Sultanate. After the defeat of the latter in 1516 by Sultan Selim I the Terrible (1512–20), Hijaz and Asir were included in Ottoman Empire. In 1638, Ottoman power also extended to Al-Hasa. Ottoman expansion did not affect the semi-desert interior. areas of the Arabian Peninsula, however, the rulers of the oases and tribal leaders of this territory, solving the problems of their own. rise or maintain power, repeatedly turned to the Porte for help.

Arabia in the 18th – late 19th centuries. First Saudi states

If in Hijaz, which became part of the Ottoman Empire, Hanafi Islam became the dominant Sunni legal school (see Hanafis), then in Najd this means. To the extent possible, the Hanbali madhhab (comprehension) of Sunnism has become established (see Hanbali). This legal school required strict adherence to religions. dogmas and live practically the way the Prophet and his companions lived. In the 1st half. 18th century these ideas were developed Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who became the spiritual mentor of the residents of the small town of Uyayna in Najd. The activities of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab displeased the ruler of Uyayna. In 1744/45, the preacher was forced to move to the town of Ed-Diriya (now within the administrative boundaries of Greater Riyadh). The migration of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his conclusion of an alliance with the emir of Ed-Diriyah Muhammad ibn Saud (1726/27–1765) is considered the beginning of the Saud. statehood. This union later became the basis for interaction between the descendants of the emir - the Saudis and the teachers of the law from the Al ash-Sheikh family (Al Sheikh, Ali-sh-Sheikh) - the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab.

K con. 1780s the rulers of Ed-Diriya established dominance over the entire territory of Najd. Int. discord in Al-Hasa made it easier for the Saudis. expansion towards the coast of the Persian Gulf. Despite the resistance of local tribes, in the 1st half. 1790s Al-Hasa became part of the Saudi Arabia. possessions. An attempt by the Ottoman Vali of Basra to restore Ottoman rule in Al-Hasa ended in the summer of 1797 with the invasion of the tribes subordinate to the ruler of Ed-Diriya into the territory of Iraq. In the spring of 1802 they captured and plundered the largest Iraq. Shiite center of Karbala. From the beginning 1790s Saudi Arabia began. raids on Hejaz. In 1805, with the establishment of Saudi control over Medina and the ports of the Red Sea, the Hijaz became part of their possessions. Saudi power was also consolidated in Asir, from where attempts were made to penetrate Yemen. In the beginning. 19th century one of the directions of Saudi Arabia. expansion became Muscat and Hadhramaut, as well as the territory of the current states of the Persian Hall zone. (including the Bahrain archipelago). However, agreements concluded by local rulers with Great Britain, for which this area played an important role in ensuring the security of communications with British India, put a limit on her. The Saudis were forced to abandon the continuation of expansion due to the landing of Egyptian troops in Hijaz in 1811. ruler Muhammad Ali .

Establishment of Saud. dominion over Mecca and Medina, which had previously been under Ottoman jurisdiction, dealt a blow to the prestige of the Istanbul sultans and caliphs, who were unable to ensure the security of the hajj. To restore its previous position, the Porte took advantage of Muhammad Ali's interest in returning Egypt's trade monopoly in the Red Sea area. Egypt troops after landing in Hejaz Yanbu (Yanbu el-Bahr), despite initial setbacks, gradually managed to develop an offensive in the direction of the interior. areas of the Arabian Peninsula and on Sept. 1818 take and destroy Ed-Diriya. First Saudi the state fell, b. h. Saudi nobles and members of the Al ash-Sheikh family were taken to Egypt.

Egypt The occupation of Najd, accompanied by looting, violence and the revival of tribal anarchy, was short-lived. Member who escaped from the Egyptians. Saudi dynasty Turki ibn Abdallah (1821–34) led the military. Egyptian resistance occupation. He was supported by the heads of the tribes and the Hanbali ulema. Leaving the destroyed Ed-Diriyah, the new emir made Riyadh his capital and consistently expanded the scope of his possessions in the center of Najd, creating the second Saudi state. In 1830 he restored the Saudi Arabia. power in Al-Hasa, forced the Saudis to admit. suzerainty of the ruler of Bahrain and resumed expansion into Oman.

Drought con. 1820s and repeated outbreaks of cholera worsened the Saudi situation. emirate. In 1834, Turki ibn Abdallah was killed by a relative who had established himself in Riyadh. The coming to power in the same year of Turki's son Faisal did not put an end to internal affairs. discord and strife in the emirate. The situation was also seriously destabilized by Muhammad Ali's new attempts to assert his power over the Arabian Peninsula. In 1837 Egypt. troops entered the capital of the emirate, reoccupied Najd and captured Emir Faisal ibn Turki, who was sent to Cairo in 1838. Power in Riyadh passed to Khalid ibn Saud, who was replaced in 1841 by Abdallah ibn Sunayyan.

In 1840 Egypt. The army was evacuated under British pressure. In 1843, Faisal ibn Turki returned to his homeland and restored his power in Riyadh. Saud. expansion towards Al-Hasa and Qassem territory resumed. In the beginning. 1860s Saudi power is completely restored in the west of Najd. The death of Faisal ibn Turki in 1865 again destabilized the emirate. He was succeeded by his son Abdallah ibn Faisal [emir in Dec. 1865 – Jan. 1873 (with a break), March 1876–1889] tried to subjugate Oman and Bahrain, but encountered opposition from the British. Faisal's other son, Saud ibn Faisal (emir in Jan. 1873 - Jan. 1875), who challenged Abdallah's right to power, established himself in Al-Has. In the spring of 1871 he marched on Riyadh and plundered the city. Subsequently, the rest of Faisal’s sons also joined the struggle for power, seeking help from local rulers and external forces - Abd ar-Rahman ibn Faisal (emir in Jan. 1875 - Jan. 1876) and Muhammad ibn Faisal. Busy internal Due to the struggle, the Saudis missed the rise in the west of Najd of the Jebel Shammar emirate with the capital of Hail, led by the Rashidid dynasty, which became allies of the Ottoman Empire. As a result, to ser. 1870s Saudi power extended only to Riyadh. In 1887, the Riyadh Emirate ceased to exist and became part of Jebel Shammar. The Saudi family, including Prince Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd ar-Rahman (Ibn Saud), born in 1880, was forced into exile.

The emergence and development of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the 1st half of the 20th century

In Jan. 1902, having made a campaign from Kuwait (the last place of exile of the Saudi family), Ibn Saud captured Riyadh. After taking the city, he renewed the agreement with the Hanbali jurists. Having strengthened Riyadh, Ibn Saud began to expand the borders of the territory under his control. Great Britain, interested in weakening Ottoman influence in the Arabian Peninsula, supported Ibn Saud, which allowed him to establish control over part of Jebel Shammar. In 1911, Ibn Saud secured the consent of Great Britain to join Al-Hasa, which was at that time under Turkish rule, as part of his possessions. In 1913 this territory came under the Saudis. jurisdiction.

Ibn Saud attached great importance to strengthening his influence in Najd. To do this, he used the Ikhwan movement that developed in this region and was inspired by Hanbali teachers. The goal of the latter was to transfer some of the Bedouins to settle in specially created settlements - hijras, where members of the movement devoted themselves to agriculture and the study of religion in its Wahhabi version. Those who moved to the hijras accepted the obligation to be loyal to other brothers in the movement, to obey the emir-imam, and not to maintain contacts with “polytheists” - Europeans and residents of the countries they subordinated. The first hijra - El-Artawiya arose in the 1st half. 1913, by 1929 there were already 120 hijras throughout the entire territory of Najd. The Ikhwans formed the striking force of Ibn Saud's army.

The First World War changed the balance of power on the Arabian Peninsula. The most important event in this region was the anti-Turkish uprising inspired by Great Britain (the so-called Great Arab Revolution in Hejaz under the leadership of the Sheriff of Mecca Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi), which began in June 1916 and led to the emergence of the sovereign Kingdom of Hejaz, which was recognized League of Nations. Ibn Saud, despite the British. pressure, did not take part in the uprising, nor did he follow the calls of the British. agents start military. actions against Jebel Shammar, which remained loyal to the Ottoman Empire. One of the results of the 1st World War was the transformation of the status of Asir. Muhammad al-Idrisi, the emir of this region, acted on the side of Great Britain during the war and enlisted the support of the British. resident in Aden and expelled the Turks from that means. parts of the territory under his control. Until 1923, Asir remained political. independence under supervision Idrisid dynasty.

In the 1920s Ibn Saud began the unification of lands previously subject to the emirs of Ed-Diriya. Jebel Shammar was the first to fall, losing its brit. support and weakened by infighting in the Rashidid family. In the fall of 1921, its capital Hail was occupied by Ikhwan troops. Thus, the entire center came under the rule of Ibn Saud. part of the Arabian Peninsula, Nejd became the leading state in the region, and its ruler became the sultan. Lack of a fixed border between Najd and Iraq, Najd and Transjordan (Brit. mandate territories), as well as Najd and Kuwait (British protectorate), which allowed Ibn Saud’s troops to penetrate their territory under the pretext of fighting “polytheists,” prompted Great Britain to raise the issue of border demarcation. On Nov. 1921 Anglo-Nejdi protocols were signed, establishing the borders of Najd with Iraq (finally determined in October 1925) and Kuwait, in October. 1925 – agreement on the Najd-Transjordan border.

In Jan. 1923 The north came under the rule of Ibn Saud. part of Asir from the city of Abha, which became Saud. protectorate On Sept. In 1924, the Ikhwans captured and plundered Et-Taif, and in October of the same year, Mecca, where they began to destroy the domes over the graves of the Prophet’s companions. The attempt of the Hijaz nobility to pacify Ibn Saud by removing Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi from power and enthroning his son Ali was unsuccessful. On Nov. 1925 Medina submitted to Ibn Saud, and Jeddah in December of the same year. Great Britain actually recognized the results of the Saudi Arabia. aggression. In 1926, at the World Muslim Festival held in Mecca. Congress, Ibn Saud achieved recognition of his power over the Hejaz, which allowed him to acquire the titles of king and Servant of the Two Noble Holy Mosques, and his state became known as the Sultanate of Najd, the Kingdom of Hejaz and its annexed territories. In Feb. In 1926, it was officially recognized by the USSR, which became the first power to establish diplomatic relations with Ibn Saud. relationships. The process of unification of the state was completed in 1932–34, when it received the modern one. name – Kingdom of Saud. Arabia, Asir was finally included in its composition and, as a result of the Saudi-Yemen war, the north was included. part of formerly Yemeni Najran.

Maintaining territorial integrity also relates. internal The stability of the new state was achieved through the power of the Ikhwans, as well as through the spread of the Wahhabi interpretation of the Hanbali madhhab. The Hanbali ulema, who developed the principle of devotion to the supporter of the “true faith,” justified power based on violence. In the beginning. 1925 The League for the Promotion of Virtue and the Condemnation of Sin (LPDOG), financed by Ibn Saud, arose in Riyadh. On Sept. 1926 its branch was created in Mecca, thereby spreading the practice of unconditional submission to Divine law in its Hanbali interpretation to the Hejaz (then to the whole country). This practice was based on the Najdi tradition, which required the theologian to monitor the implementation of Sharia norms in the sphere of religions. rituals and morals, as well as eradicate political. dissent.

The leading role in SA was played by the Hejaz, whose viceroy was Ibn Saud’s son, Prince Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz. The first Sauds arose in Hijaz. governments. institutions (the management experience of the Ottoman and Hashemite times was used). Until the end 1950s actual the capital of the state was Mecca (Riyadh remained the seat of the Najdi nobility and religious dignitaries). In Aug. 1926 were adopted Basic. provisions of the Kingdom of Hejaz, which determined the status of the viceroy, state. bodies, the Council of Ministers, as well as the Advisory Council - a kind of parliamentary assembly. The need for modern army, equipped with the latest military. technology, dictated the need to resolve the personnel issue. Personnel for the army were trained both abroad and in technical schools created in S.A. schools.

“Conservative modernization” of S.A. became the reason for the first appearance of the opposition, represented by Ibn Saud’s former allies – the Ikhwans, who appealed to the “purity” of Wahhabi Hanbalism. The list of accusations against the ruler they compiled in 1926 mentioned “unacceptable” contacts of his sons with diplomatic officials. agents of Great Britain, refusal to evict Shiites from the oases of the coast of the Persian Gulf, the operation of secular laws in the Hejaz. The revolt of the Ikhwans, who declared jihad against the ruler, was suppressed only in 1929.

Until the end 1930s basic The sources of revenue for the SA budget remained the Hajj and transfers from other Muslims. countries funds from the use of waqf. The decrease in the number of pilgrims (especially during the years of the global economic crisis of 1929–33), as well as the irregularity of the receipt of waqf contributions, complicated the financial situation of S.A. This prompted Ibn Saud to meet the requests of the Amer. oil monopolies, including Standard Oil Co. of California” (“Socal”), granting them the right to explore oil fields in the territory of Al-Hasa (oil was discovered in neighboring Bahrain in 1932). Ibn Saud hoped that this would not only replenish the budget, but also weaken the British. influence on the Arabian Peninsula. In 1933, an agreement was signed to grant Socal a concession for oil exploration in S.A. In November. 1933 the concession was transferred to Socal's subsidiary, California-Arabian Standard Oil Co. (in January 1944 renamed Arabian American Oil Company - Aramco). The concession agreement provided for the provision by S.A. of loans, annual payments, rent and certain payments for each ton of oil produced after identifying its commercial properties. reserves (all payments had to be made in gold), the construction of an oil refinery and free provision of gasoline and kerosene to S.A. In response, the Saudis the government exempted the company and its enterprises from taxes and customs duties. First Saud. commercial oil quantities were discovered in 1938, the concession zone was expanded, and the concession itself was extended for up to 60 years.

At the initial stage of World War II, S.A. pursued a policy of neutrality, maintaining relations with both Great Britain and Germany and Italy, which were considered by Ibn Saud as a counterweight to the British. politics. However, later, under the influence primarily of the United States, which expanded oil production in SA and provided it with significant assistance, including military assistance, the Saudis. the government changed its position. In 1940 it broke off diplomatic relations. relations with Italy, in Sept. 1941 – with Germany. On 2/14/1945, at a meeting between Ibn Saud and US President F.D. Roosevelt on board the cruiser Quincy in the Suez Canal, an agreement was reached on the free use of Saud. ports by US and UK ships, as well as the creation of an American base. Air Force on a 5-year lease from Saudi Arabia. territory in exchange for guarantees to prevent the occupation of S.A. by troops of countries anti-Hitler coalition and recognition by the Saudis. independence. In March 1945, S.A. declared war on Germany and Italy, which allowed it to become one of the founding members United Organizations Nations. Having initially taken a cautious position regarding the process of creation that began in 1944 Arab League, S.A. joined this organization in March 1945.

Saudi Arabia in the 1950s–90s

Ibn Saud died on November 9, 1953. His heir was Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz, who appointed his predecessor. Council of Ministers and Crown Prince Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz. This led to the emergence of dual power in the country. The situation was aggravated by what was happening in S.A. and in the Arab world in general. world social and political. changes. Transformation of the previously patriarchal Saud. society also affected Shiite circles, but was not accompanied by an increase in their role in the life of the state. Shiite entrepreneurship was limited to the lower levels of business; there were no Shiite teachers or Shiite religionists in schools and universities. rituals remained prohibited, Shiite youth could not join the army and police. All this, as well as the persecution of the Saudis. authorities of workers' organizations and the harsh suppression of strikes pushed Shiite youth to join underground organizations. In 1953, strikes of oil workers, inspired by illegal trade unions and strike committees created by Shiites, broke out in Al-Hasa. In their wake, the National Front arose in the same year. reforms (FNR; since April 1958 National Liberation Front, FNL), which demanded “to liberate the country from imperialist. domination”, introduce a constitution, provide social rights to women, improve the situation of peasants and workers, and abolish slavery.

The spread of the ideas of pan-Arabism and the increasingly acute need for changes in society and politics. and economical The life of the country led to an aggravation of contradictions in the Saudi family, which resulted in an open confrontation between the king and the crown prince (initially supported by the FPR), who sought to take the throne. In May 1958, Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz was forced to issue a decree empowering the CM to fully implement it. authorities. Nevertheless, contradictions in the ruling family continued to deepen. A group of young princes (the so-called free princes) led by Talal ibn Abd al-Aziz established relations with G. A. Nasser and demanded that a constitution be introduced in the country. reform, thereby hoping to gain access to power. In 1962 the “free princes” emigrated to Egypt. What happened on Sept. 1962 anti-monarchist. The revolution in Yemen (SA supported the royalists, Egypt supported the Republicans) contributed to a certain consolidation of the Saudis. At the end of Oct. 1962 Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz announced a new government program. It declared its intention to proclaim the “basic law of government”, based on the Koran and Sunnah, to “raise the social level of the nation”, to introduce free education and medical care. service, strengthen government regulate the economy, abolish slavery. Although the program was never implemented, it reflected a desire to take into account the demands made by the "free princes".

At the beginning of Nov. 1964 Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz is finally removed from power. Theologians have published special a fatwa legitimizing what happened. This contributed to an even greater strengthening of the influence of the ulema. The staff of the LPDOG and its funding have increased. Ulema were introduced into the cassation courts. The adoption of the Labor Law in 1968 became possible only after the Supreme Mufti recognized it as complying with Sharia.

The primary task of Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz, who came to power, was to resolve the situation in Yemen and achieve mutual understanding with G. A. Nasser. However, direct Saudi-Egyptian relations initiated by the new king. Negotiations on Yemen did not bring results until 1967. Egypt's defeat by Israel in the June War of 1967 (see Arab-Israeli wars) changed the balance of power in the region. At the Aug.-Sept. 1967 at the Arab League summit in Khartoum, Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz and Nasser signed an agreement on a peace settlement in Yemen, which provided for the withdrawal of Egypt from this country. troops. The decisions of the Khartoum summit testified to the growing influence of SA, which was turning into a leading Arab power. peace. At the insistence of S.A., a common position of the Arab League on Israel was developed, which provided for the refusal of peace negotiations with it until the complete withdrawal of Israeli troops from the occupied Arab countries. territories. SA became the largest financial donor to Egypt, Syria and Jordan.

Adopted by Great Britain in Jan. The 1968 decision to withdraw troops from the territories “east of Suez,” which presupposed the independence of the emirates of Treaty Oman, Bahrain and Qatar, strengthened S.A.’s position in the Persian Gulf zone. This region was acquired by the Saudis. foreign policy priority and became a place of confrontation between S.A. Iran. Strengthening international SA's influence allowed the Saudis to put forward the slogan of “Islamic solidarity” as an alternative to secular pan-Arabism. On Sept. 1969 in Rabat at a meeting of heads of state and government of 25 Muslims, held on the initiative of S.A. and Morocco. countries announced the creation of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (since 2011 Organization of Islamic Cooperation). Coming to power in Egypt in 1970 after the death of Nasser, who was the main figure. a conductor of the ideas of pan-Arabism, A. Sadat expanded the sphere of the Saudi-Egyptian. political and economical interactions.

25.3.1975, while receiving min. Kuwait oil industry, Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz was killed by his cousin Faisal ibn Musaid. On the same day in Saudi Arabia. Crown Prince Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz ascended the throne. 11/20/1979 religious group. opponents of the government from among the young employees of the LPDOG, led by Juhayman al-Uteibi, who appealed to the “purity” of Wahhabi dogma, captured Ch. Mecca mosque. 12/4/1979 Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz with the approval of the highest religions. The saud gave the order to the dignitaries. security service take Ch. the mosque is stormed. The action in Mecca coincided with the beginning of new Shiite unrest in Al-Hasa. Their spiritual leaders, led by Sheikh Hassan al-Saffar, initiated public speeches under slogans of support Islamic Revolution in Iran 1979, termination of supplies to Saudi Arabia. oil in the USA and the creation of the so-called. Islamic Republic of Al Hasa.

These events prompted the Saudis. the government to take steps to strengthen the position of the existing regime. One of the measures was the creation among young people, under the leadership of theologians, of circles and groups for the study of Wahhabi dogma (the participants in these circles later became mujahideen in Afghanistan, as well as in Kashmir, Tajikistan, in the North. Caucasus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo). In the sphere of foreign policy, a course was taken towards the unification of the Arabs. monarchies in the face of the threats that Iran posed for the states of the region. revolution and Iran–Iraq War 1980–88. This was expressed in the creation of 5/25/1981 Gulf Cooperation Council. In an effort to counteract Palestinian radicals, SA at the Arab League summit in Fez in 1982 put forward a plan for a Middle East peace settlement (the so-called Fahd plan), which for the first time outlined the possibility of pan-Arab recognition of Israel.

In June 1982, Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz died in Saudi Arabia. The throne was erected by Crown Prince Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz. The years of his reign became an important milestone in the history of the country - a time of overcoming internal. and external challenges and the beginning of economic and political modernization. In 1988, Aramco became the property of S.A. (became known as Saudi Aramco), which significantly expanded the financial capabilities of the state. The creation of modern technology began in the country. infrastructure: construction of a petrochemical complex. enterprises in Al-Jubail and Yanbu al-Bahr, modern networks. mor. ports, highways and airports. There has been a turn towards the “Saudization” of socio-economics. spheres - in industry, p. x-ve, the healthcare and education systems began to increasingly use national. labor force. To Saudi Arabia A new educated class emerged in society and began to play an important role in politics. After 1985 Saudi Arabia the authorities began to pursue a course of “cautious openness” towards the Shiite population of the East. province (Al-Hasy). The place of the previous administrators (natives from Najd) was taken by Shiites - graduates of universities in the region. Shiites were included in the management of industrial enterprises under construction. complexes. Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz granted amnesty to the participants in the 1979 unrest and announced his renunciation of the practice of discrimination against Shiites, including the removal of anti-Shiite texts from school textbooks.

Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz continued his predecessor’s course of increasing the role of SA in resolving regional conflicts, primarily in the Middle East. Saud. the government contributed to the cessation of civil war in Lebanon. 10/23/1989 in Taif on the Lebanese side. conflict signed a peace agreement. At the same time, in Afghanistan, S.A. actively supported the forces fighting against the Owls. troops, including the Taliban movement (SA presented the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan in 1988 as a victory for the “Islamic solidarity” it promoted). During Kuwait crisis 1990–91 S.A., fearing possible aggression from the Saddam Hussein regime and loss of dominance in the GCC, turned to the United States for help, provided its territory for the deployment of forces of the anti-Iraqi coalition, and allocated financial resources for the war. operations against Iraq. Saud. troops, as well as units of the GCC countries, took part in the liberation of Kuwait (see. "Desert Storm" 1991). After the liquidation of the Kuwait crisis, S.A. was actively involved in the Madrid peace process, one of the results of which was the adoption of the Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles and the creation in the Gaza Strip and parts of the West. banks of the river Jordan Palestinian National Authority. Perestroika in the USSR and the busy Sov. leadership's position during the Kuwait crisis created the preconditions for the resumption of diplomatic relations in 1991. relations between the two countries (were frozen in 1938).

The Kuwait crisis pushed the Saudis. government to carry out political reforms. In 1992, 4 constitutions were introduced. Act: Basic the law of government, the Law on the Advisory Council, the Law on the Administration of Provinces and the Law on the Council of Ministers, which created the preconditions for the transition to a “parliamentary monarchy”, the principle of separation of powers and the development of the foundations of regional self-government.

Saudi Arabia in the 21st century

After the terrorist attack in New York on September 11, 2001, S.A. broke off diplomatic relations. relations with afg. by the Taliban government, deprived Saudi Arabia. citizenship of W. bin Laden and joined the international. anti-terrorism coalition that sent troops to Afghanistan. In 2003, S.A. criticized the US intention to carry out military operations. strike on Iraq, considering it possible to resolve differences with the regime of S. Hussein political. methods. However, later S.A. joined the anti-Iraqi coalition, and after the overthrow of the Iraqi government, it took part in the occupation and reconstruction of this country.

In connection with the death of Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz in Saudi Arabia. Crown Prince Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz ascended the throne (August 1, 2005). Under him, on October 19, 2006, the Law on Oath-taking was adopted. He finally regulated the procedure for appointing an heir to the throne and prescribed obligations. approval of his candidacy by representatives of all factions of the Saudi family and swearing an oath of allegiance to him. In Oct. In 2011 and June 2012, this law was put into practice when Naef ibn Abd al-Aziz (died in the summer of 2012) and Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz were appointed heirs to the throne, respectively. In an effort to give greater stability to the regime, on March 27, 2014, Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz appointed Muqrin ibn Abd al-Aziz to the newly created post of heir to the throne. This decision was caused by the health of Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz and was aimed at maintaining the continuity of the succession of Ibn Saud's sons at the top of politics. authorities.

During the reign of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz in 2005, the composition of the Constitutional Court was expanded. The number of its appointed members increased from 60 to 150 people. They began to represent all regions and religious groups of the country. In 2010, the Constitutional Court was given the power to legislate. initiatives. In Feb. In 2013, a “female faction” appeared in it (30 women were introduced into the Constitutional Court while maintaining its previous number). In accordance with the king's decree, starting from 2016, women will be able to participate in municipal elections. The introduction of women into the Constitutional Court was preceded by initiatives aimed at expanding their participation in society. life and their legal emancipation. Saud. women began to receive identity cards, be employed in ministries and departments, occupy positions of rectors of “units for women”, and be elected to the governing bodies of trade and industry. chambers, societies associations, work in the “women’s departments” of large stores. The country is actively discussing the issue of further expanding the rights of women, including the lifting of the ban on women driving cars.

An important place in the internal The policy of Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz was focused on weakening the influence of the ulema on Saudi Arabia. society and state. The sphere of female education was removed from the jurisdiction of the corps of teachers, transferred to the Ministry of Education, the Court of Cassation came under the auspices of the monarch (2007), as a result of which the state gained full control over Sharia legal proceedings, and the codification of Hanbali law began to be carried out. In Feb. 2009 Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz reformed the Council of Supreme Ulema (appointments to it are completely controlled by the authorities), introducing theologians representing non-Hanbali Sunni legal schools into its composition. Thus they received an official. recognition in S.A. In the summer of 2014, a representative of the Ismaili community was added to the Council of Ministers, who took the post of Minister of Constitutional Court Affairs.

S.A. did not experience the shocks of the so-called period. Arab. spring, although under the influence of events in neighboring countries, domestic politics intensified in S.A. life, a petition movement developed, whose participants demanded the deepening of the constitution. reforms and the introduction of a “parliamentary monarchy” in the country, and an attempt was made to create the Islamic Party of the Nation. S.A. led the GCC initiative aimed at achieving political. changes in Yemen peacefully, thereby preventing weapons. confrontation between government and opposition. Further, condemning the state carried out in this country by the al-Houthi Movement. coup, S.A. contributed to the development of a unified position of the GCC, which qualified the al-Houthi Movement as “terrorist.” org-tion” and demanded the restoration of the constitution. order in Yemen. S.A. supported the actions of the Libyan opposition to overthrow the regime of M. Gaddafi in 2011, while adhering to a policy of non-interference in the intra-Libyan conflict that began in 2014. In March 2011, Saudi Arabia leadership, based on the request of the Bahraini monarch and declaring the need to “confront Iran. expansion,” brought its troops (supported by the armed forces of some GCC countries) into the territory of Bahrain. Saud. The leadership reacted negatively to the overthrow of Egypt. President M.H. Mubarak, refused to support the movement Muslim Brotherhood, approved the removal from power of M. Morsi and established close relations with the new head of Egypt A. F. al-Sisi. Continuing the course of countering Iran’s “hegemony” in the Islamic world and in the Persian Gulf zone, S.A. welcomed the resignation of the government of Nuri al-Maliki in Iraq and now considers the opening of the Saudi Arabia possible. embassy in Baghdad, declaring, however, that the presence of local Sunnis in power structures is insufficient. Saud. The government condemns Israel for its punitive actions in the Gaza Strip, but refuses contacts with the Hamas movement and provides support to the Palestinian National Authority. administration headed by M. Abbas. Countering radical sentiments in Arab. world, S.A. considers the “Arab. the peace initiative" as aimed at achieving it will end. political settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict.

In connection with the death of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz on January 23, 2015 in Saudi Arabia. Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz ascended the throne. On April 29, 2015, he declared his nephew, Mohammed ibn Naef, as crown prince, and his son, Mohammed ibn Salman, as his successor.

On most global and regional problems (conflict situations in the Middle East, primarily around Iraq, Afghanistan, Yemen, Sudan, the Arab-Israeli conflict), as well as on issues of non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, the fight against extremism and terrorism, transnational organized crime, drug trafficking and piracy, on the subject of the G20, the positions of the Russian Federation and S.A. coincide or are close. Bilateral contacts are maintained at senior and high levels. On Sept. 2003 Visited Moscow with official. visit of the future king S.A. Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz, during which he held negotiations with Russian President V.V. Putin. In Feb. 2007 official event took place. V.V. Putin’s visit to S.A. A set of bilateral agreements, memorandums and protocols was signed, including the General Agreement of November 20, 1994. Since 2002, the Joint Intergovernmental Organization has been operating. Russian-Saudi commission on trade and economics and scientific and technical cooperation and Russian-Saudi business council (within the framework of the Russian-Arab business council). Large projects are being implemented in S.A. companies OJSC LUKOIL Overseas, including within the framework of the joint venture with Saudi Aramco "LUKOIL Saudi Arabia Energy" (LUKSAR), OJSC Stroytransgaz, CJSC Globalstroy-Engineering, etc.

Russian-Saudi sphere relations neither in historical In retrospect, today it is not free, however, from the problems that complicate mutual understanding between the two countries. Saud. public and private foundations under the slogan of “Islamic solidarity” actively acted on growth. North Caucasus, providing financial support to the Chechens. separatists. Only on Sept. 2003, while in Moscow, Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz stated that the Chech. question – “internal. business" of Russia, and contributed to the further registration of growth. membership in the OIC as an observer country (from the end of June 2005). S.A. is wary of Iran. nuclear program, considering that the negotiations taking place around it do not sufficiently take into account its interests and the interests of the GCC countries. Most means. irritant in the Russian-Saudi region. relations is the situation in Syria, in relation to which S.A. insists on the resignation of B. Assad and the transfer of power to the National. coalition forces sire. opposition and revolution.

Farm

S.A. is a developing country with a high level of income. GDP volume is 1616.0 billion dollars (2014, at purchasing power parity; 14th place in the world, 1st among Arab countries); in terms of GDP per capita, 52.5 thousand dollars (high per capita income is determined by the relatively small population and, therefore, income from oil exports). Human Development Index 0.836 (2013; 34th among 187 countries).

The basis of the economy is the production and export of oil (43% of GDP, 2014; over 80% of the state budget revenue) and petrochemicals. industry GDP dynamics means. largely due to oil prices. Wed. the growth rate of real GDP in 2000–08 was 5.1%, in 2009 – 1.8%, in 2010 – 7.4%, in 2011 – 8.6%, in 2012 – 5.8%, in 2013 – 3 ,8%.

Since the 1990s Much attention is paid to diversifying the economic structure and liberalizing the economy with increasing the role of private entrepreneurship. Economic development is carried out on the basis of 5-year plans. Great progress has been made in the development of petrochemicals. industry, infrastructure, energy, sea desalination. water, some industries in the light and food industries, as well as in healthcare. The development of new industries is facilitated by tax concessions, benefits for natural gas, electricity, etc. One of the chapters. obstacles to further diversification of the economy – lack of readiness b. Part of the economically active population to work in non-prestigious professions (the main part of those employed in industry are foreign workers).

The volume of accumulated direct foreign exchange. investment approx. 240.6 billion dollars (2013; at market prices), the total volume of external debt is estimated at 149.4 billion dollars. Inflation rates are approx. 3.7% (2013). S.A. has large foreign assets (approx. $737.6 billion, 2014), which are managed by sovereign national. investment funds. As part of attracting foreigners. investments in 2005, the country joined the WTO, the government began to create several “economic. cities" in various regions of the country.

Due to the decline in oil prices in 2013–14, there was a government surplus. The budget in 2013 decreased to $54.9 billion ($103 billion in 2012), the budget in 2014 was reduced to a deficit of $14.4 billion.

In the structure of GDP, the share of industry is 59.7%, the service sector - 38.3%, p. farming and fishing – 2.0% (2014).

Industry

Modern Manufacturing industries are in their infancy (in 2009–12, the total number of enterprises increased from 4887 to 6519). Basic role in industry production is played by mining (mainly the extraction of oil and natural gas) and petrochemical. industry Electric power industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, production of building materials, light industry, and food industry are also highlighted. In the beginning. 21st century The automotive, electrical, pharmaceutical, and pulp and paper industries are developing. Based on the number of employees, petrochemical industries are distinguished. (142.6 thousand people, 2012) and food (114.4) industry.

Prom. enterprises are built in complexes (the so-called industrial or economic cities; 14 in 2007, 28 in 2012; the largest are in Yanbu al-Bahr, Medina district; Al-Jubail and Ras al-Khair, both -n Vostochny) with pre-prepared production. and social infrastructure and are located Ch. arr. by sea the perimeter of the country.

Fuel industry

The basis of the fuel industry is oil production and refining. The industry is governed by the Supreme Petroleum Council [includes state. Saudi Arabian Oil Co. ("Saudi Aramco"; the world's largest in terms of oil reserves and production) and "Saudi Basic Industries Corporation" (SABIC)]. S.A. is a key member. Organizations of oil exporting countries(approx. 1/3 of the total production of the countries included in the organization).

Oil production 542.3 million tons (2012; 1st place in the world); basic area - the Al-Hasa lowland and the adjacent shelf zone of the Persian Gulf. (according to production volumes, deposits in the Vostochny region are distinguished: Gavar, Saffaniya-Khafji, Khurais, Manifa, Sheiba, Qatif, Khursaniya, Zuluf, Abqaiq, etc.); Several are being developed south of Riyadh. new ultra-light oil fields. Oil export 378.6 million tons (2013; 1st place in the world). Approx. processed annually. 101.4 million tons of crude oil (2012; production of fuel oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, jet fuel, lubricating oils, etc.).

The world's largest complex for primary oil refining is in Abqaiq (Bukaiq; Vostochny district; Saudi Aramco company; capacity 348.5 million tons per year; about 70% of produced oil is processed; including production in light and ultra-light oil). The largest refineries in the cities: Ras Tanura (Eastern district; capacity of about 26 million tons of crude oil per year), Rabigh (Mecca region), Yanbu al-Bahr (both - about 19 million tons ), Al-Jubail (approx. 15 million tons).

Natural gas production 111 billion m 3 (2012; according to other data, 93 billion m 3; about 70% is associated gas from the Gavar, Saffaniya-Khafji and Zuluf fields; it is planned to increase production through the development of the Karan, Wasit and other fields .). There are plants for processing and liquefying natural gas (total capacity of over 61 million tons in 2013) in Abqaiq, Yanbu al-Bahr, Haradh, Hawiyah (the last two are in the Vostochny region), etc.

Electric power industry

Electricity production approx. 292.2 billion kWh (2013; more than doubled compared to 2000); 100% is generated at thermal power plants, the largest: Riyadh (in Riyadh; capacity 5336 MW), Ghazlan (in Ras Tannur; 4128 MW), Qurayya (in Abqaiq, 3927 MW). The increase in demand for electricity is caused by industrial development, population growth and high energy consumption for air cooling in the summer months (approx. 2/3 of consumption in the residential sector). Solar energy is developing. The industry is managed by the Saudi Electricity Company and regional electricity production companies, and there are also several operating companies. independent generating companies.

Thermal power plants operate with desalination. installations. S.A. is one of the world's leading producers of desalinated water (the development of the industry is of great importance due to the acute shortage of natural fresh water resources); desalinizes installations provide up to 60% of national needs (2013; leading company - state-owned Saline Water Conversion Corporation).

Ferrous metallurgy

Ferrous metallurgy is represented by the extraction of iron ore (760 thousand tons in terms of metal, 2012), direct reduction of iron (5.7 million tons), steel smelting (5.2 million tons) and the production of ferroalloys (196 thousand tons). T). S.A. imports means. part of iron ores and rolled metal. There are rolling mills [with a capacity of 5.5 million tons of rolled steel per year in Al-Jubail, as part of the leading national Saudi Iron and Steel Company (Hadeed); power approx. 800 thousand tons in Dammam, etc.], pipe rolling (jointly owned by ArcelorMittal and Bin Jarallah Group; seamless pipes, including large diameter ones, for the oil and gas industry; approx. 500 thousand t; in Al-Jubail), ferroalloys (Gulf Ferro Alloys Company; in Al-Jubail), for the production of steel reinforcement [in Jeddah (1.1 million tons per year) and Al-Kharj, district Riyadh (755.5 thousand tons), both are part of one of the leading national. companies "Rajhi Steel Industries Co."], billets (950 thousand tons), coils (250 thousand tons; both are part of the company "Rajhi Steel Industries Co.", Jeddah), slabs, etc.

Non-ferrous metallurgy

Mining of non-ferrous metal ores (thousand tons, 2012) is underway: bauxite (760; deposits of Ez-Zabira, Hail district, and El-Bayta, district of Al-Qassim), zinc (15, in terms of metal; deposits Al-Masane, Najran district; Al-Amar, Riyadh district; Mahd-ed-Dahab, Medina district), etc.; as well as (t, 2012) silver (7.9), gold (4.3; including the El-Amar, Mahd-ed-Dahab deposits; El-Hajar, Asir district; Bulgah, district Medina). Metallurgical complex in Ras al-Khair is one of the largest in the world [jointly owned by the national. "Saudi Arabian Mining Company" ("Ma'aden") and Amer. Alcoa; power approx. 1.8 million tons of alumina and approx. 740 thousand tons of primary aluminum]. Plants for the enrichment of gold ore in Bulgah and Sukhaybarat (Medina district). Smelting (t, 2013): zinc 28.0, copper approx. 10.0, lead st. 0.5, etc. (mostly sampled from imported raw materials). Production of aluminum foil and containers, copper wire, etc.

Mechanical engineering

The automotive industry is actively developing. There are automobile assembly plants in Dammam (Isuzu trucks) and Jeddah (Mercedes-Benz trucks); production of automotive parts and components. Release divers. equipment (energy; for the oil and gas industry - production and technological center of the American company General Electric in Dammam), cable products, assembly of household appliances, etc. Shipbuilding, ship repair and aircraft repair enterprises, mechanical. workshops.

Chemical industry

The organization and management of the industry is carried out by the head. arr. national SABIC holding; b. including petrochemical plants are located in the cities of Al-Jubail (as part of the Al-Jubail Petrochemical Company - a joint venture between SABIC and the American Exxon Mobil, Saudi Japanese Acrylonitrile Company - a joint venture between SABIC and the Japanese corporations Asahi Kasei Chemicals and Mitsubishi, etc.) and Yanbu el-Bahre (including the Saudi Kayan Petrochemical Company complex with a capacity of up to 5.6 million tons of products per year) (operate in cooperation with refineries).

Basic organic products synthesis (production capacity, million tons per year, 2014): ethylene 19.5 (3rd place in the world; approx. 11% of world production), polyethylene approx. 18.4 (including high pressure approx. 3.5), methanol approx. 8.9, ammonia approx. 7.9, propylene St. 6.5, polypropylene approx. 5.6, urea 5.5, ethylene glycol 4.3, ethylene oxide 3.3, styrene 2.5, etc.

Miner production occupies an important place. fertilizers: phosphorus (based on phosphorites from the El-Jalamid deposit, El-Hudud al-Shamaliya district; it includes an enrichment plant with a capacity of 5 million tons of concentrate per year), nitrogen, etc.; basic centers are Al-Jubail and Ras al-Khair.

Production of sulfuric acid in Ras al-Khair and Yanbu al-Bahr, phosphoric acid and nitrogen in Ras al-Khair, chlorine, caustic. soda and hydrochloric acid - near Dammam, titanium dioxide - in Yanbu el-Bahr and Jizan, magnesia - near Medina. Production of polymer films (including polyethylene and polypropylene) and materials, plastic products (including a plant for the production of plastic pipes in Riyadh), thermoplastics. resins, decomposition coatings, industrial adhesives, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and sanitary and hygienic products.

Construction materials industry

The building materials industry is based on its own. raw materials. Extraction (million tons, 2012): limestone (over 49), building. sand and gravel (approx. 27), brick and refractory clay (approx. 6), gypsum (st. 2); as well as (thousand tons, 2012) feldspar (168), kaolin (58, Ez-Zabira deposit), marble (25), etc. Cement production 50 million tons (2012); basic plants (capacity, million tons, 2012) - in Al-Hofuf (8.6), Riyadh (6.3), Rabigh (4.8), Yanbu al-Bahr (4.0) and Jal- el-Watahe (near Buraidah, 4.0).

Woodworking, pulp and paper, light and food industries

The country is rapidly developing woodworking, pulp and paper [including the production of furniture, cardboard (factory of the leading regional manufacturer - MEPCO company in Jeddah), paper (Dammam)], light (especially clothing production; large a role is played by handicraft enterprises - textile, weaving, carpet-making, leather and footwear, jewelry, pottery, etc.; the main centers are Jeddah, Mecca, Taif), food processing (the main production of drinks, as well as dairy products, confectionery , bakery and tobacco products, processing of agricultural raw materials, including dates, fish, etc.) industry. Printing enterprises.

Agriculture

Since the 1960s The state plays a leading role in the development of the industry: the introduction of modern technology. technology and engineering; state programs to provide peasants with land plots, issue interest-free loans and compensation for the purchase of equipment, seeds and fertilizers; support for purchase prices for grains and dates; providing benefits and subsidies to livestock farmers (increasing breeding stock at the expense of the state, importing feed and livestock from abroad), encouraging private initiative.

Large companies predominate in production. Possibilities of conducting s. farms are limited by natural climate. conditions (rainfed farming is possible on lands in the southwestern part of the country).

In the structure of agricultural of land (million hectares, 2011) out of 173.4, pastures account for 170.0, arable land - 3.2, perennial plantings - 0.2. S.A. provides itself with some types of food, but cannot achieve complete self-sufficiency (up to 80% of food is imported, 2012).

Leading industry farms - crop production. It develops in large oases (Al-Hasa in the Eastern region, Ed-Dawasir in the Riyadh region, etc.) and on irrigated lands (in the Asir, Riyadh, Al-Qassim, Eastern, etc.) regions. , as well as in greenhouse farms. Ch. agricultural crop – date palm. Date collection 1065 thousand tons (2013; 3rd place in the world); They also grow wheat, vegetables, fruits, etc.

In livestock farming there are large modern feedlot farms. Dairy and beef cattle breeding is concentrated around Riyadh, in the Al Qassim and Eastern regions. Traditional camel breeding, sheep breeding and horse breeding (common in the interior of the country and in mountainous regions). Poultry farming. Beekeeping. Livestock (million heads of livestock, 2013): sheep 11.5, goats 3.4, cattle 0.5, camels 0.3. Production (thousand tons, 2013): milk 2338.0, meat 802.8, leather and skins 51.5, wool 11.5. Fishing; fishing for pearls and sponges in the Persian Gulf, mining of black coral and amber.

Services sector

Stand out (billions of dollars, 2012) state. services (90.2), wholesale and retail trade, restaurant and hotel business (58.4), financial and business services (55.6), transport and logistics. services and communications (approx. 31.0), social and personal services (approx. 12.0). The country's financial system is regulated by the S.A. Monetary Agency (Central Bank, 1957; in Riyadh); largest commercial banks - state National commercial bank (1953; Jeddah), state. Al Rajhi, Riyad (both in Riyadh), etc. Saud. stock exchange (Tadawul; the only one in the country; in Riyadh). In 2014, 16.7 million people visited the country. (over 55% from Arab countries), income amounted to $9.2 billion. Main. Types of incoming tourism - religious (36.7% in 2012; mainly from Jordan and Pakistan; main centers - Mecca and Medina), business (18.6%), visiting relatives and friends (17.7%).

Transport

Basic mode of transport – automobile. The total length of roads is 221.4 thousand km, including 47.5 thousand km with hard surfaces (2006). Ch. roads pass through the main settlements, and also connect S.A. with Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, the UAE, and Yemen. The dam bridge (length approx. 25 km) connects S.A. with Bahrain. The total length of railways is 1378 km (2008). Several international airports (the largest are in Jeddah and Riyadh). Aviation passenger turnover transport 68 million people (2013). Mor. transport is served by Ch. arr. foreign trade transportation. Mor. the fleet consists of 72 vessels (2010; including 45 tankers). Ch. mor. ports (cargo turnover, million tons in 2012): Jeddah 62.7, Jubail 52.8, Yanbu al-Bahr 40.0, Dammam 27.4, Ras al-Khair 2.3, Jizan 1.5 , Duba (Diba) 1.1 (Medina district). An extensive network of pipelines has been created. The total length of oil pipelines is 5117 km [including the Trans-Arabian Abqaiq - Yanbu el-Bahr (Petroline, or East-West) with a length of approx. 1200 km from the oil fields of the Persian Gulf. to oil refineries and ports of Krasnyi metro; underwater from S.A. fields to Bahrain], oil product pipelines 1150 km (Dahran - Riyadh, length about 380 km; Riyadh - Qasim, length about 354 km, etc.), gas pipelines 2940 km (Abqaiq - Yanbu -el-Bahr, etc.), for the transportation of liquefied natural gas - 1183 km (Abqaiq - Yanbu el-Bahr, etc.), condensate - 209 km (2013). Metro in Mecca and Riyadh (under construction, 2015).

International trade

The balance of foreign trade turnover is traditionally active. The volume of foreign trade turnover (million dollars, 2014) is 521.6, including exports 359.4, imports 162.2. The commodity structure of exports is dominated (% of value, 2013) by minerals. resources 87.5 (main crude oil), chemical products. industry 9.4. Ch. buyers (% of value, 2013): China 13.9, USA 13.6, Japan 13.0, Republic of Korea 9.8, India 9.5. Imported (% of value, 2013): machinery and transport equipment 43.3, chemical products. industry and other metal products 22.9, food and agricultural products goods 14.3. Ch. suppliers (% of cost, 2013): USA 13.1, China 12.9, India 8.1, Germany 7.4, Republic of Korea 6.1.

Armed forces

The Armed Forces (AF) number 233.5 thousand people. (2014) and consist of 4 types - Ground Forces (ground forces), air force, air defense forces, navy and independent forces. kind of missile forces. In addition to the regular army, the armed forces also include national ones. guard, border troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (10.5 thousand people), coast guard (4.5 thousand), industrial forces. security (9 thousand people), intended for action in crisis situations. During the threatened period and during the war. time, military officers may be involved in the interests of the Armed Forces. formations and units of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Military annual budget $62 billion (2014 estimate). Supreme Commander. The Armed Forces is the head of the state - the king, who exercises general leadership through the Ministry of Defense, the General Staff and the Military. inspection. The king appoints min. defense, chief of the General Staff and commanders of the armed forces.

NE (75 thousand people) – main. type of aircraft. The combat structure of the Army includes: brigades (4 armored, 5 mechanized, artillery, airborne), army aviation command (2 aviation brigades) and other units. They are in service with approx. 600 tanks, 300 armored personnel carriers, 1420 armored personnel carriers, 780 infantry fighting vehicles, 240 towed guns, 60 MLRS, 440 mortars, 2400 ATGM launchers, 900 short-range air defense systems, 1000 MANPADS. Army aviation has 12 combat and 55 multi-purpose and transport helicopters.

The Air Force (20 thousand people) is organized organizationally into commands (operational, supply, etc.) and aviation. squadrons. The Air Force is armed with approx. 300 combat aircraft, including 170 fighter-bombers (7 squadrons) and 110 fighters (6 squadrons). Military transport aviation has 45 aircraft. In addition, there are 16 refueling aircraft, St. 100 combat and training aircraft. Helicopter aviation numbers approx. 80 units. The Air Force also includes the Royal Airlift Wing - 16 aircraft. There are 15 militaries in the country. airfields, including 5 ch. Air Force bases (Dhahran, Taif, Khamis Mushait, Tabuk, Riyadh).

The air defense troops (16 thousand people) consist of anti-aircraft missile forces, anti-aircraft artillery and radio engineering units. troops. Organizationally, the air defense forces are consolidated into 6 districts. Interceptor fighters from the Air Force are operationally subordinate to the air defense. The air defense forces are armed with 144 Patriot missile launchers, 128 Improved Hawk missile launchers, 141 Shahin missile launchers, 40 Krotal self-propelled launchers, 270 anti-aircraft guns and installations, etc.

The Navy (13.5 thousand people) includes 2 fleets, each of them with several. groups of ships and boats. In service there are 7 guided missile frigates, 4 corvettes, 9 missile boats, 17 large and 39 small patrol boats, 7 mine-sweeping ships, 8 landing boats, 2 supply transports, 13 tugs; to sea aviation - 34 helicopters (including 21 combat ones). Mor. the infantry (3 thousand people) is represented by a regiment (2 battalions), armed with 140 armored personnel carriers. Coastal defense troops have 4 batteries of Otomat mobile coastal missile systems. Basic naval bases and bases - Jeddah, Al-Jubail, Yanbu al-Bahr, etc.

The coast guard (4.5 thousand people) has 50 patrol boats, 350 motor boats, and a training vessel.

National The guard (100 thousand people) includes regular formations (75 thousand people) and tribal detachments. Its main purpose - protection of the monarchy. regime, protection of governments. institutions, oil fields and other objects. Subordinates directly to the king, formed in the main. on a tribal basis, coordinates its actions with the Ministry of Defense, General Staff, security forces and police. Organizationally it consists of brigades (3 mechanized, 5 infantry) and cavalry. squadron (for ceremonial purposes). In service approx. 2000 armored personnel carrier, 514 armored personnel carrier, 70 art. guns, 110 mortars of 81 and 120 mm calibers, St. 120 PU ATGM.

Recruitment of regular aircraft on a voluntary basis. Men aged 18–35 years are accepted for service. Mobilization resources 5.9 million people, including those fit for military service. service 3.4 million people. Weapons and military The equipment is almost entirely imported (from the USA and Great Britain).

The training of privates and non-commissioned officers is carried out in training centers and schools, officers - in academies of the armed forces and abroad. There are a large number of foreigners in the regular armed forces. military specialists.

Healthcare

Per 100 thousand inhabitants there are 94 doctors; 22 hospital beds – for 10 thousand inhabitants. (2011). There are 244 hospitals and 2037 health centers (2009). The overall mortality rate for adults. 3.32 per 1000 inhabitants. (2014). Basic causes of death – cardiovascular and oncological. diseases, diabetes. Total healthcare expenditures amount to 3.7% of GDP (2011) (budgetary funding – 65.8%, private – 34.2%; 2012). Legal regulation of healthcare is carried out on the basis of the Fund. nizam on power (1992), laws on cooperative health insurance (1999), on private medical services. laboratories (2002), about labor (2005). The Ministry of Health provides preventive, therapeutic and rehabilitation services. honey. assistance and their financing. For citizens of S.A. med. help is free. The healthcare system is divided into primary, secondary and tertiary levels of medical care. service. There is also Islamic Cooperative Health Insurance (Takaful). Basic recreation areas - Al-Khobar, Dammam, Jeddah, etc.

Sport

The SA Olympic Committee was founded and recognized by the IOC in 1964. Since 1972, SA athletes have taken part in the Olympic Games (with the exception of the games in Moscow, 1980); 3 medals were won - silver in the 400 m hurdles (Hadi al-Somaili in Sydney, 2000) and 2 bronze (Khaled al-Eid, individual show jumping in 2000 and team show jumping in London, 2012). The most popular sport is football. The SA Football Federation was founded in 1956. The SA national football team is a 3-time winner (1984, 1988, 1996) and a 3-time finalist (1992, 2002, 2007) of the Asian Cup; in 1994 she played in the 1/8 World Cup. The capital's Al-Hilal club (1957) is one of the strongest in Asia, a 13-time national champion (1977–2011), hosts opponents at the stadium. King Fahd (approx. 62 thousand seats).

SA athletes have been taking part in the Asian Games since 1978 (with the exception of 1998); in 1978–2014, 24 gold, 11 silver and 20 bronze medals were won.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

The education system in S.A. took shape towards the end. 20th century Regulatory documents – Document on formation. politics (1969) and Strategic. Ministry of Education plan (2004–14). Preparation of Prof. personnel is under the jurisdiction of the Corporation for Vocational and Technical. education, sphere of higher education – Ministry of Higher Education. Education is free at all levels. The education system includes: preschool education (underdeveloped), 6-year primary education, 5-year (3-year incomplete and 2-year complete) education. 3-year vocational-technical course education is provided in junior colleges. Preschool education covered (2013) 13.2% of children, primary education – 93.4%, secondary education – 90.1%. The literacy rate of the population aged 15 years and older is 96% (data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). Higher education is provided by high fur boots, higher technical. institutes, colleges of technology, pedagogical. colleges, colleges for girls. In the country there are St. 20 universities: Islamic University named after. Imam Muhammad ibn Saud (1950, current status since 1974), University named after. King Saud (1957) - both in Riyadh, University of Petroleum and Mining. resources named after King Fahd in Dhahran (1963, current status since 1975), Univ. King Faisal (has branches in Dammam and Al-Hofuf) (1975), University of Science and Technology. King Abdullah (2009; 80 km from Jeddah), as well as the high fur boots of Dammam, Jeddah, Medina, Mecca, etc. The largest libraries: National (1968) and public. King Abd al-Aziz (1999) - both in Riyadh, King Abd al-Aziz in Medina (1983) and others. Nat. museum in Riyadh (1999).

Among scientific institutions: Research Center named after. King Abd al-Aziz (1972) and the Center for Research and Study of Islam. King Faisal (1983) - both in Riyadh; Center for Research in Islamic Education in Mecca (1980), Institute of Islamic Studies in Jeddah (1982).

Mass media

Daily newspapers are published in Arabic. languages: “Al-Jazeera” (“Peninsula”; since 1960; circulation about 123 thousand copies, Riyadh), “Al-Bilad” (“Country”; since 1934; about 30 thousand. copies, Jeddah), “Al-Madina” (“Medina”; since 1937; about 60 thousand copies, Jeddah), “Ukaz” (“Ukaz Newspaper”; since 1960; about 250 thousand . copies, Jeddah), “An-Nadwa” (“Club”; since 1958; approx. 30 thousand copies, Mecca), “Al-Yaum” (“Day”; since 1965; approx. 135 thousand copies, Dammam). In English. language daily newspapers are published: Arab News (since 1975; approx. 51 thousand copies), Saudi Gazette (since 1976; approx. 50 thousand copies, both in Jeddah). Radio broadcasting since 1948, television since 1964. Broadcasting of television and radio programs is carried out by the SA Broadcasting Service (Riyadh), the Government Television Service of the SA (Riyadh), Aramco Radio (Dhahran), Dhahran TV ( Dhahran). National information Saudi Press Agency (founded 1970, Riyadh).

Literature

The literature of the peoples of S.A. is created in Arabic. language. Before gaining statehood, S.A. developed in line with the Arab- Muslim culture; in the beginning. 20th century presented in the main poetry in classical Arab. language, as well as prosaic. works of religion, history. and didactic. character. In con. 1920s - early 1930s Signs of renewal are noticeable: romanticism arose in poetry that reflected the influence of Egyptian literature. A major role in the development of prose was played by the book published in Medina since 1937. "al-Manhal", who published translations of stories from Western. and east languages; his publishers Abd al-Quddus al-Ansari and Ahmed Rida Khuhu became the founders of the short story genre, which initially had an exclusively edifying and sentimental character. Didacticism permeates the novels of Abd al-Quddus al-Ansari (“Twins”, 1930), Muhammad Maghribi (“Resurrection”, 1942), Ahmed Rida Khuhu (“The Girl from Mecca”, 1947) and Ahmed al-Sibai (“Thought”, 1948), who promoted education. and cultural reforms.

From the beginning 1950s realism began to take hold; got to graduate. modern design prosaic genres, literature acquired pronounced national. features determined by the characteristics of culture, life, socio-political. life. It's rushing. changes in lifestyle were reflected in the novels “The Price of Sacrifice” by Hamid Damanhuri (1959; in Russian translation 1966 “Love and Duty”) and “The Hole in the Veil of Night” by Ibrahim al-Humeidan (1959), which determined the main themes of realism. prose – the conflict of “fathers” and “sons”, modernization of societies. morals Among the most prominent realist prose writers: Abd ar-Rahman ash-Sha'ir, Sibai Usman, Najat Hayat. The characteristic feature is realistic. prose - autobiography: novels by Fuad Ankawi, Isam Haukir, Abd al-Aziz Mishri, as well as the trilogy of Turki al-Hamad “Ghosts in Deserted Lanes” (1995–98).

From the 2nd half. 1970s modernist aesthetics are established. Interest in the subconscious, the construction of a subjective, often irrational image of the world turned out to be a convenient opportunity to overcome censorship obstacles. The expression of unconscious desires, manias and obsessive states of an “alienated” person who has lost faith in the rationality of the world around him is at the center of the stories of Muhammad Alwan, Hussein Ali Hussein, Jarallah al-Hamid, Sada al-Dawsari, Abdallah Bahashwein, Noura al-Ghamedi, Badriya al-Bishr, Layla al-Uhaidib. Connection of modern Narrative forms with folklore techniques are distinguished by the works of Miryam al-Ghamedi, Hassan an-Nimi, Sultana al-Sideiri.

A wide variety of styles is inherent in literature. 20 – beginning 21st centuries: the novel “Reyhana” by Ahmed al-Duwaihi (1991) appears as a mosaic of scenes snatched from different points in space and time; mixing modernity with Arab. Middle-century heritage and people legends mark the novels “The Fortress” by Abd al-Aziz Mishri (1992) and “The Silk Road” by Raja Alem (1995). Warda Abd al-Malik's novel The Return (2006) uses the technique stream of consciousness. Great popularity in Arabic. The novels “She Shoots Sparks” by Abdo Hal (2008) and “The Necklace of Doves” by Raja Alem (2010) have gained popularity around the world.

Architecture and fine arts

Artist Since ancient times, SA culture developed in oases connected by caravan routes. The oldest artifacts date back to the early Lower Paleolithic (stone tools). In the Neolithic era, ceramics, objects made of obsidian, petroglyphs with scenes of hunting and rituals, figures of people and animals appeared (Jubba oasis near the city of Hail). From the 6th millennium BC. e. there is an increase in cultural ties with the South. Mesopotamia, as evidenced by the finds of Ubaid painted ceramics in the north-east. parts of the country. From the end 4th millennium BC e. tools made of bronze, vessels made of stone with carved decoration, and painted ceramics with zoomorphic and geometric designs are becoming widespread. ornaments, carved seals of the Mesopotamian type; monumental buildings (sanctuaries, tower tombs), stone sculpture (tombstone anthropomorphic steles from the environs of Hail and the El-Ula oasis, late 4th - 3rd millennium BC) appear. Monuments of the 1st half. 1st millennium BC e. (for example, the ruins of religious buildings and the palace of the Babylonian king Nabonidus in the oasis of Taima, mid-6th century BC) indicate increased contacts with Assyria and Babylonia. In the north of the country there are monuments of the kingdom of Lihyan (el-Ula oasis - ancient Dedan, 5-2 centuries BC) and Nabataean kingdom(city of Hegra, modern Madain-Salih, 2nd century BC - 1st century AD; included in the list World Heritage): rectangular sanctuaries, rock tombs with jagged facades (2nd century BC - 1st century AD), fragments of stone statues with generalized rough facial features and reliefs with images of animals. At the turn of the 1st millennium BC. e. – 1st millennium AD e. in the department In the regions of S.A., the influence of Greco-Roman is evident in wall paintings, bronze sculpture, and jewelry. culture (finds from the excavations of Qaryat el-Faw, etc.). The largest Hellenistic ensemble on the territory of S.A. - the remains of the city and the royal necropolis of Saj near the city of Al-Jubail. From 4th–6th centuries. the ruins of the department have been preserved. Christian buildings (church near Al-Jubail). From Middle Ages. Islamic architecture of S.A. survived by a few monuments in the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, also at the sites of pilgrims. Gor. development gray 18 – beginning 20th centuries bears Ottoman and Egyptian features. influences Traditional residential architecture is represented by buildings made of mud brick (in inland areas) or coral limestone and wood (in Hijaz and on the coast of the Red Sea), lined with gypsum, on a stone base, with wood. beam ceiling. Jeddah and Medina are characterized by tower houses with flat roofs, wooden. bars (mashrabiya) on the balconies, for Abhi - houses with eaves (from the rain).

After the formation of the independent state of S.A. in Riyadh, Jeddah and other cities, along with traditions. development, with middle 20th century modern multi-storey buildings appear. type, using concrete. Since the 1970s construction is underway with the involvement of foreigners. architects and urban planners (general plans for 10 cities in the northern and central parts of the country, the firm of K. A. Doxiadis), on the site of historical. buildings are being built in modern times. neighborhoods with buildings in international style, but with elements of tradition. Islamic architecture (mosques in Jeddah, architect Abdel Wahid al-Wakil). New types of societies are emerging. buildings (al-Khairiya complex, 1982, architect Tange Kenzo; construction of the international airports named after King Khalid in Riyadh, 1983, and in Jeddah, 1981, architectural bureau "Skidmore, Owings & Merrill", International Stadium . King Fahd in Riyadh, 1987, etc.). From the end 20th century in connection with the reconstruction of the Sacred Mosque in Mecca and the Prophet's Mosque in Medina and the creation of numerous. pilgrim complexes, mountains ensembles are being intensively developed in modern times. builds. technologies and sun protection structures, decorative materials. Among the newest buildings are the Faisaliya Tower (2000, architect N. Foster and others), the Royal Center Tower (2003, both in Riyadh).

Modern S.A. painting and sculpture began to develop in the 2nd half. 20th century (A. Radvi, M. Mossa al-Salim, F. Samra, etc.). Nar. The claim is presented traditionally. jewelry, amulets, leather and wool products.

Culture

Culture is strongly associated with Islam; public theaters, cinemas, and secular music concerts are prohibited. Since 1985, an annual national event has been held near Riyadh. festival “Dzhenadria” (folk music and dances, in which only men participate; poetry, painting, etc.).

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya al-Saudiya), a state on the Arabian Peninsula in South-West Asia. In the north it borders with Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait; in the east it is washed by the Persian Gulf and borders with Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, in the southeast it borders with Oman, in the south with Yemen, in the west it is washed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The total length of the borders is 4431 km. Area - 2149.7 thousand square meters. km (data are approximate, since the boundaries in the south and southeast are not clearly established). In 1975 and 1981, agreements were signed between Saudi Arabia and Iraq to divide a small neutral zone on the border of the two states, which was implemented in 1987. Another agreement was signed with Qatar to demarcate the border until 1998. In 1996, the neutral zone was divided into border with Kuwait (5,570 sq. km), but both countries continue to share oil and other natural resources in the area. Border issues with Yemen have not yet been resolved; Nomadic groups in the border areas with Yemen are resisting border demarcation. Negotiations between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia continue on the issue of the maritime border with Iran. The status of the border with the United Arab Emirates has not been definitively established (details of the 1974 and 1977 agreements have not been made public). Population - 24,293 thousand people, incl. 5576 thousand foreigners (2003). The capital is Riyadh (3,627 thousand). Administratively, it is divided into 13 provinces (103 districts).

NATURE

Terrain.

Saudi Arabia occupies almost 80% of the territory of the Arabian Peninsula and several coastal islands in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. In terms of surface structure, most of the country is a vast desert plateau (elevation from 300-600 m in the east to 1520 m in the west), weakly dissected by dry river beds (wadis). In the west, parallel to the coast of the Red Sea, stretch the mountains Hijaz (Arabic “barrier”) and Asir (Arabic “difficult”) with a height of 2500-3000 m (with the highest point of An-Nabi Shuaib, 3353 m), turning into coastal lowland Tihama (width from 5 to 70 km). In the Asir Mountains, the terrain varies from mountain peaks to large valleys. There are few passes over the Hijaz Mountains; communication between the interior of Saudi Arabia and the shores of the Red Sea is limited. In the north, along the borders of Jordan, stretches the rocky Al-Hamad Desert. In the northern and central parts of the country there are the largest sandy deserts: Big Nefud and Small Nefud (Dekhna), known for their red sands; in the south and southeast - Rub al-Khali (Arabic for “empty quarter”) with dunes and ridges in the northern part up to 200 m. Undefined borders with Yemen, Oman and the United Arab Emirates run through the deserts. The total area of ​​deserts reaches approximately 1 million square meters. km, incl. Rub al-Khali - 777 thousand sq. km. Along the coast of the Persian Gulf stretches the El-Hasa lowland (up to 150 km wide) in places swampy or covered with salt marshes. The seashores are predominantly low, sandy, and slightly indented.

Climate.

In the north - subtropical, in the south - tropical, sharply continental, dry. Summer is very hot, winter is warm. The average July temperature in Riyadh ranges from 26° C to 42° C, in January - from 8° C to 21° C, the absolute maximum is 48° C, in the south of the country up to 54° C. In the mountains in winter, sub-zero temperatures are sometimes observed and snow. The average annual precipitation is about 70-100 mm (in the central regions the maximum is in spring, in the north - in winter, in the south - in summer); in the mountains up to 400 mm per year. In the Rub al-Khali desert and some other areas, in some years there is no rain at all. Deserts are characterized by seasonal winds. The hot and dry southern winds samum and khamsin in spring and early summer often cause sandstorms, while the winter northern wind shemal brings cooling.

Water resources.

Almost all of Saudi Arabia has no permanent rivers or water sources; temporary streams form only after intense rainfall. They are especially abundant in the east, in Al-Hasa, where there are many springs irrigating the oases. Groundwater is often located close to the surface and under wadi beds. The water supply problem is addressed through the development of seawater desalination enterprises, the creation of deep wells and artesian wells.

Soils.

Primitive desert soils predominate; In the north of the country, subtropical gray soils are developed, in the low-lying eastern regions of Al-Hasa there are saline soils and meadow-saline soils. Although the government has a greening program, forests and woodlands occupy less than 1% of the country's area. Arable land (2%) is mainly located in fertile oases north of the Rub al-Khali. A significant territory (56%) is occupied by lands suitable for grazing livestock (as of 1993).

Natural resources.

The country has huge reserves of oil and natural gas. Proven reserves of crude oil reach 261.7 billion barrels, or 35.6 billion tons (26% of all world reserves), natural gas - about 6.339 trillion. cube m. In total there are about 77 oil and gas fields. The main oil-bearing area is located in the east of the country, in Al-Hasa. The reserves of the world's largest oil field, Ghawar, are estimated at 70 billion barrels of oil. Other large fields are Safaniya (proven reserves - 19 billion barrels of oil), Abqaiq, Qatif. There are also reserves of iron ore, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, and gold.

Vegetable world.

predominantly desert and semi-desert. White saxaul and camel thorn grow in places on the sands, lichens grow on hamads, wormwood and astragalus grow on lava fields, single poplars and acacias grow along the wadi beds, and tamarisk in more saline places; along the coasts and salt marshes there are halophytic shrubs. A significant part of sandy and rocky deserts is almost completely devoid of vegetation. In spring and wet years, the role of ephemerals in the composition of vegetation increases. In the Asir Mountains there are areas of savannah where acacias, wild olives, and almonds grow. In the oases there are groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, grain and vegetable crops.

Animal world quite diverse: antelope, gazelle, hyrax, wolf, jackal, hyena, fennec fox, caracal, wild ass, onager, hare. There are many rodents (gerbils, gophers, jerboas, etc.) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles). Birds include eagles, kites, vultures, peregrine falcons, bustards, larks, hazel grouses, quails, and pigeons. Coastal lowlands serve as breeding grounds for locusts. There are more than 2,000 species of corals in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf (black coral is especially prized). About 3% of the country's area is occupied by 10 protected areas. In the mid-1980s, the government established Asir National Park, which preserves nearly extinct species such as the oryx (oryx) and the Nubian ibex.

POPULATION

Demography.

In 2003, 24,293 thousand people lived in Saudi Arabia, incl. 5576 thousand foreigners. Since the first census conducted in 1974, the population has tripled. In 1990-1996, the average annual population growth was 3.4%, in 2000-2003 - 3.27%. In 2003, the birth rate was 37.2 per 1000 people, the death rate was 5.79. Life expectancy is 68 years. In terms of age, more than half of the country's residents are under 20 years old. Women make up 45% of the population. According to UN forecasts, the population should increase to 39,965 thousand people by 2025.

Population composition.

The vast majority of the population of Saudi Arabia are Arabs (Saudi Arabs - 74.2%, Bedouins - 3.9%, Gulf Arabs - 3%), most of whom have retained their tribal organization. The largest tribal associations are Anaza and Shammar, tribes are Avazim, Avamir, Ajman, Ataiba, Bali, Beit Yamani, Beni Atiya, Beni Murra, Beni Sahr, Beni Yas, Wahiba, Davasir, Dakhm, Janaba, Juhaina, Kakhtan, Manasir, manakhil, muahib, mutair, subey, suleiba, shararat, harb, huwaita, huteim, etc. The suleiba tribe, inhabiting the northern regions, is considered to be of non-Arab origin and, according to some sources, consists of descendants of crusaders captured and enslaved. In total, there are more than 100 tribal associations and tribes in the country.

In addition to ethnic Arabs, the country is home to Saudi Arabs of mixed ethnic origin, having Turkish, Iranian, Indonesian, Indian, and African roots. As a rule, these are descendants of pilgrims who settled in the Hijaz region, or Africans who were imported into Arabia as slaves (before the abolition of slavery in 1962, there were up to 750 thousand slaves in the country). The latter live mainly in the coastal regions of Tihama and Al-Hasa, as well as in oases.

Foreign workers make up approx. 22% of the population and consists of non-Saudi Arabs, people from African and Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines), as well as a small number of Europeans and Americans. Foreign-born Arabs live in cities, oil fields and areas bordering Yemen. Representatives of all other peoples are concentrated in large cities and oil fields, where, as a rule, they form more than half of the total population.

Work force.

The economically active population is 7 million people, of which 12% are employed in agriculture, 25% in industry, 63% in the service sector. The number of people employed in industry and services has been steadily increasing in recent years. 35% of those employed in the economy are foreign workers (1999); Initially, Arabs from neighboring countries predominated among them; over time, they were replaced by people from South and Southeast Asia. There is no official information on the state of unemployment. However, according to unofficial data, almost 1/3 of the economically active male population (women are practically not involved in the economy) is unemployed (2002). In this regard, Saudi Arabia, since 1996, has been implementing a policy to limit the hiring of foreign labor. Riyadh has developed a 5-year economic development plan designed to encourage the hiring of Saudi citizens. Companies (under threat of penalties) are required to increase their hiring of Saudi workers by at least 5% per year. At the same time, since 1996, the government declared 24 professions closed to foreigners. Today, the most successful replacement of foreigners with Saudi nationals takes place mainly in the public sector, where in recent years the state has hired over 700 thousand Saudis. In 2003, the Saudi Arabian Interior Ministry unveiled a new 10-year plan to reduce the number of foreign workers. Under this plan, the number of foreigners, including immigrant workers and members of their families, should be reduced to 20% of the number of native Saudis by 2013. Thus, according to experts’ forecasts, taking into account the growth of the country’s population, the foreign colony should be reduced by approximately half over a decade.

Urbanization.

Until the early 1960s, the majority of the population were nomads and semi-nomads. Thanks to rapid economic growth, the share of the urban population increased from 23.6% (1970) to 80% (2003). At the end of the 1990s, approx. 95% of the population switched to a sedentary lifestyle. Most of the population is concentrated in oases and cities. Average density 12.4 people/sq. km (some cities and oases have a density of more than 1,000 people/sq. km). The most densely populated areas are along the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, as well as around Riyadh and to the northeast of it, where the main oil producing areas are located. The population of the capital, Riyadh (since 1984, diplomatic missions have been located here), is 3,627 thousand (all data for 2003), or 14% of the country's population (the annual population growth in the city between 1974 and 1992 reached 8.2%), mainly These are Saudis, as well as citizens of other Arab, Asian and Western countries. The population of Jeddah, the main port of the Hijaz and the most important business center of Saudi Arabia, is 2,674 thousand people. Until 1984, diplomatic missions of foreign states were located here. In the Hijaz there are also two holy cities of Muslims - Mecca (1541 thousand) and Medina (818 thousand), - accessible only to Muslim pilgrims. In 1998, these cities were visited by approx. 1.13 million pilgrims, including approx. 1 million - from various Muslim countries, as well as North and South America, Europe and Asia. Other large cities: Damman (675 thousand), Taif (633 thousand), Tabuk (382 thousand). Their population consists of representatives of various Arab countries, including the Gulf countries, Indians, as well as people from North America and Europe. Bedouins, who maintain a nomadic lifestyle, inhabit mainly the northern and eastern regions of the country. More than 60% of the entire territory (the deserts of Rub al-Khali, Nefud, Dakhna) does not have a permanent settled population; even nomads do not penetrate into some areas.

Language.

The official language of Saudi Arabia is Standard Arabic, which belongs to the West Semitic group of the Afroasiatic family. One of its dialects is classical Arabic, which, due to its archaic sound, is currently used mainly in a religious context. In everyday life, the Arabian dialect of Arabic (Ammiya) is used, which is closest to the literary Arabic language, which developed from the classical language (el-fuskha). Within the Arabian dialect, the closely related dialects of Hijaz, Asir, Najd and Al-Hasa are distinguished. Although the differences between the literary and spoken languages ​​are less pronounced here than in other Arab countries, the language of the urban inhabitants differs from the dialects of the nomads. Among people from other countries, English, Tagalog, Urdu, Hindi, Farsi, Somali, Indonesian, etc. are also common.

Religion.

Saudi Arabia is the center of the Islamic world. The official religion is Islam. According to various estimates, between 85% and 93.3% of Saudis are Sunni; from 3.3% to 15% are Shiites. In the central part of the country, almost the entire population is Hanbalis-Wahhabis (they include more than half of all Sunnis in the country). In the west and southwest, the Shafi'i sense of Sunnism predominates. There are also Hanifites, Malikis, Hanbalis-Salafiyya and Hanbadis-Wahhabis here. A small number of Shia Ismailis and Zaydis live there. A significant Shia group (about a third of the population) lives in the east, in Al Hasa. Christians make up about 3% of the population (according to the American Conference of Catholic Bishops, there are over 500 thousand Catholics living in the country), all other denominations make up 0.4% (as of 1992, unofficially). There is no information on the number of atheists.

STATE STRUCTURE

The first legal documents establishing the general principles of government and governance of the country were adopted in March 1992. According to the Fundamentals of the Government System, Saudi Arabia is an absolute theocratic monarchy, ruled by the sons and grandsons of the founding king Abdul Aziz bin Abdul Rahman al-Faisal Al Saud. The Holy Quran serves as the constitution of the country, which is governed by Islamic law (Sharia).

The highest authorities include the head of state and the crown prince; Council of Ministers; Advisory Board; High Council of Justice. However, the actual structure of monarchical power in Saudi Arabia is somewhat different from how it is presented in theory. To a large extent, the king's power rests on the Al Saud family, which consists of more than 5 thousand people and forms the basis of the monarchical system in the country. The king rules based on the advice of leading members of the family, in particular his brothers. His relations with religious leaders are built on the same basis. Equally important to the stability of the kingdom is the support of noble families such as the al-Sudairi and Ibn Jiluwi, as well as the religious Al ash-Sheikh family, a subsidiary branch of the Saudi dynasty. These families have remained loyal to the Al Saud clan for almost two centuries.

Central executive power.

The head of state and religious leader of the country (Imam) is the Servant of the Two Holy Mosques, King (Malik) Fahd bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (since June 13, 1982), who is also the Prime Minister, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and Supreme Judge. Since 1932, the country has been ruled by the Saudi dynasty. The head of state has full executive, legislative and judicial powers. His powers are theoretically limited only by Sharia law and Saudi tradition. The king is called upon to maintain the unity of the royal family, religious leaders (ulema) and other elements of Saudi society.

The mechanism of succession to the throne was officially established only in 1992. The heir to the throne is appointed during his lifetime by the king himself, with the subsequent approval of the ulema. Due to tribal traditions, Saudi Arabia does not have a clear system of succession to the throne. Power usually passes to the eldest in the clan, the one most suitable to perform the functions of the ruler. Since 1995, due to the illness of the monarch, the de facto head of state is the Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al-Saud (half-brother of the monarch, heir to the throne from June 13, 1982, regent from January 1 to February 22, 1996). To ensure a conflict-free change of power in the country, in early June 2000, by the decision of King Fahd and Crown Prince Abdullah, the Royal Family Council was formed, which includes 18 of the most influential direct descendants of the founder of the Arabian monarchy, Ibn Saud.
According to the constitution, the king heads the government (in its current form it has existed since 1953) and determines the main directions of its activities. The Council of Ministers combines both executive and legislative functions. All its decisions, which must be compatible with Sharia law, are made by a majority vote and are subject to final approval by royal decree. The Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister, the First and Second Deputy Prime Ministers, 20 ministers (including the Minister of Defense, who is the Second Deputy Prime Minister), as well as government ministers and advisers appointed as members of the Council of Ministers by decree of the king. The most important ministries are usually headed by representatives of the royal family. Ministers assist the king in carrying out his powers in accordance with the constitution and other laws. The King has the right to dissolve or reorganize the Council of Ministers at any time. Since 1993, the length of service of each minister is limited to a four-year term. On August 2, 1995, King Fahd made the most significant personnel changes in the cabinet in recent decades, which left 16 of the 20 ministers of the current government.

Legislature.

There is no legislative body - the king rules the country through decrees. Since December 1993, the Monarch has had an Advisory Council (CC, Majlis al-Shura), consisting of scientists, writers, businessmen, prominent members of the royal family and representing the first public forum in the history of Saudi Arabia. The Constitutional Court is called upon to develop recommendations to the government on issues of socio-economic development of the country, to prepare opinions on various legal acts and international agreements. At least 10 members of the Council have the right of legislative initiative. They can propose a new bill or additions and changes to existing legislation and submit them to the Chairman of the Council. All decisions, reports and recommendations of the Council must be submitted directly to the King and the Chairman of the Council of Ministers for consideration. If the points of view of the two councils coincide, the decision is made with the consent of the king; if the points of view do not coincide, the king has the right to decide which option will be accepted.

According to the 1993 decree, the Advisory Council consisted of 60 members and a chairman appointed by the king for a period of 4 years. In July 1997, the number of the CC increased to 90 members, and in May 2001 - to 120. The Chairman of the Council is Mohammed bin Jubeir (in 1997 he retained his post for a second term). With the expansion, the composition of the Council also changed; in 1997, for the first time, three representatives from the Shiite minority were included in it; in 1999 women were allowed to attend CC meetings. Recently, the importance of the Advisory Council has gradually increased. There are calls from the moderate liberal opposition to hold general elections to the Constitutional Court.

Judicial system.

The civil and judicial codes are based on Sharia law. Thus, all marriage, divorce, property, inheritance, criminal and other matters are regulated by Islamic regulations. Several secular laws were also passed in 1993. The country's judicial system consists of disciplinary and general courts, which hear simple criminal and civil cases; Shariah or Cassation Court; and the Supreme Court, which reviews and reviews all the most serious cases, and also monitors the activities of other courts. The activities of all courts are based on Islamic law. Religious judges, qadis, preside over the courts. Members of religious courts are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the High Council of Justice, consisting of 12 senior jurists. The King is the highest court of appeal and has the power to issue pardons.

Local authorities.

In accordance with a royal decree in 1993, Saudi Arabia was divided into 13 provinces (emirates). By decree of 1994, the provinces were, in turn, divided into 103 districts. Power in the provinces belongs to governors (emirs) appointed by the king. The most important cities, such as Riyadh, Mecca and Medina, are headed by governors belonging to the royal family. Local affairs are administered by Provincial Councils, whose members are appointed by the King from among the most distinguished families.

In 1975, the kingdom's authorities issued a law on municipal elections, but elected municipalities were never formed. In 2003, the intention to hold the first municipal elections in the history of the kingdom was announced. Half of the seats in the 14 regional councils will be elected, the other half will be appointed by the Saudi government. Elections to regional councils are seen as a step towards reforms announced by King Fahd in May 2003.

Human rights.

Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that has refused to recognize some articles of the International Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN in 1948. According to the human rights organization Freedom House, Saudi Arabia is one of the nine countries with the worst regime in the field of political and civil rights. Some of the most obvious human rights violations in Saudi Arabia include: mistreatment of prisoners; prohibitions and restrictions in the field of freedom of speech, press, meetings and organizations, religion; systematic discrimination against women, ethnic and religious minorities, and suppression of workers' rights. The country retains the death penalty; Since the Gulf War in 1991, Saudi Arabia has seen a steady increase in the number of executions. In addition to public executions, arrests and imprisonments of dissidents are widely practiced in the kingdom.

Political parties and movements.

Despite the ban on the activities of political parties and trade unions, there are a number of political, public and religious organizations of various orientations in opposition to the regime.

The left opposition includes a few groups of nationalist and communist orientation, relying mainly on foreign workers and national minorities, among them: Voice of the Vanguard, the Saudi Communist Party, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party, the Green Party, the Socialist Labor Party, the Saudi Socialist Front, Union of the Peoples of the Arabian Peninsula, Front for the Liberation of the Occupied Zones of the Persian Gulf. In recent years, their activity has noticeably decreased, and many groups have disbanded.

The liberal opposition is not organized organizationally. It is represented mainly by businessmen, intellectuals, technocrats and advocates for increased participation of various representatives of society in government, accelerated modernization of the country, political and judicial reforms, the introduction of institutions of Western democracy, reducing the role of conservative religious circles and improving the status of women. The number of supporters of the liberal opposition is small, but in recent years the royal regime, seeking to maintain good relations with the West, has been forced to increasingly listen to its opinion.

The most radical opposition force is the conservative and religious fundamentalist Islamic circles of the Sunni and Shiite persuasion. The Islamist movement arose back in the 1950s as a conglomerate of informal groups, but only finally took shape in the early 1990s. Among the Sunni opposition, three movements stand out: the moderate wing of traditionalist Wahhabism, the militant movement of neo-Wahhabism, and the liberal-oriented movement of supporters of Islamic reforms.

Traditionalists include many ulema, elderly theologians, as well as once powerful tribal sheikhs. In the 1990s, traditionalists were represented by such organizations as the “Group for Imitating the Piety of Ancestors”, “Group for the Preservation of the Koran”, “Monotheists”, “Callers”, etc.

Neo-Wahhabis, according to many experts, rely on unemployed youth, teachers and theological students, as well as former Mujahideen who fought in Afghanistan, Algeria, Bosnia and Chechnya. They sharply criticize the government for its actions during the Gulf War, the foreign military presence in the country, the modernization of society along Western lines, and advocate Islamic values. Intelligence agencies suggest that the most militant circles of neo-Wahhabism are associated with international terrorist organizations (Al-Qaeda, Muslim Brotherhood) and may be behind a number of attacks committed on foreigners in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Moderate Islamists are represented by the Committee for the Protection of Legal Rights (formed in May 1993) and the Movement for Islamic Reform in Arabia (established in March 1996 as a result of a split in the Committee). Both groups operate primarily in the UK and in their statements combine radical Islamist rhetoric with demands for reforms in the political, social and economic spheres, expansion of freedom of speech and assembly, contacts with Western countries, and respect for human rights.

Shia Islamists represent a religious minority in the Eastern Province and advocate the abolition of all restrictions on Shiites and the freedom to practice their religion. The most radical Shiite groups are considered to be “Saudi Hezbollah” (also known as “Hezbollah Hejaz”, up to 1000 people) and “Islamic Jihad of Hejaz”. More moderate is the Shia Reform Movement, which emerged in the early 1990s on the basis of the Organization of the Islamic Revolution. Since 1991, it has published Al Jazeera Al Arabiya in London and The Arabian Monitor in Washington.

Foreign policy.

Saudi Arabia has been a member of the UN and the League of Arab States (LAS) since 1945, a member of the IMF and World Bank since 1957, and a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) since 1960. Since 1948 it has been at war with Israel. Plays a significant and constructive role in the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and Arab and Islamic financial assistance and development institutions. One of the world's largest donors, it provides assistance to a number of Arab, African and Asian countries. Since 1970, the headquarters of the secretariat of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and its subsidiary organization, the Islamic Development Bank, established in 1969, have been located in Jeddah.

Membership in OPEC and the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries makes it easier to coordinate Saudi oil policy with other oil-exporting governments. As a leading oil exporter, Saudi Arabia has a special interest in maintaining a sustainable and long-term market for its oil resources. All its actions are aimed at stabilizing the global oil market and reducing sharp price fluctuations.

One of the main principles of Saudi Arabia's foreign policy is Islamic solidarity. The Saudi government often helps resolve regional crises and supports Israeli-Palestinian peace negotiations. As a member of the Arab League, Saudi Arabia advocates the withdrawal of Israeli troops from the territories occupied in June 1967; supports a peaceful solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict, but at the same time condemns the Camp David Accords, which, in their opinion, are not capable of guaranteeing the right of the Palestinians to create their own state and determine the status of Jerusalem. The latest Middle East peace plan was proposed by Crown Prince Abdullah in March 2002 at the annual Arab League summit. In accordance with it, Israel was asked to withdraw all its forces from the territories occupied after 1967, return Palestinian refugees and recognize an independent Palestinian state with its capital in east Jerusalem. In exchange, Israel was guaranteed recognition by all Arab countries and the restoration of “normal relations.” However, as a result of the position taken by a number of Arab countries and Israel, the plan failed.

During the Gulf War (1990-1991), Saudi Arabia played a decisive role in creating a broad international coalition. The Saudi Arabian government provided coalition forces with water, food and fuel. In total, the country's expenses during the war amounted to $55 billion.

At the same time, the war in the Persian Gulf caused a deterioration in diplomatic relations with a number of Arab states. Only after the war were relations with Tunisia, Algeria and
Libya, which refused to condemn the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. During the war and immediately after its end, Saudi Arabia's relations with countries that expressed support for Iraq's invasion of Kuwait - Yemen, Jordan and Sudan - remained extremely tense. One manifestation of this policy was the expulsion of over a million Yemeni workers from Saudi Arabia, which further aggravated the existing border conflict. The pro-Iraqi stance of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) leadership also led to a deterioration in its relations with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries. Saudi Arabia's relations with Jordan and the Palestinian Authority were only normalized in the late 1990s, at which time the Saudi government's assistance to the Palestinian Authority was resumed. In July 2002, the Saudi Kingdom transferred $46.2 million to the accounts of the Palestinian Authority. Another $15.4 million was allocated by the Saudi Arabian government as free aid to the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) in October 2002. This payment was made as part of the decisions Arab League summit in Beirut (27-28 March 2002).

Saudi Arabia became one of three countries that established diplomatic relations with the Afghan Taliban movement in 1997, interrupted in 2001. Since the beginning of the 21st century, especially after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, there have been signs of a cooling of the country's relations with a number of Western countries caused by accusations in promoting international Islamic terrorism.

The country has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation. First established with the USSR in 1926. The Soviet mission was withdrawn in 1938; in September 1990, an agreement was reached on the complete normalization of diplomatic relations between the USSR and Saudi Arabia; The embassy in Riyadh has been operating since May 1991.

Territorial conflicts.

In 1987, the demarcation of the border with Iraq in the former neutral zone was completed. In 1996, the neutral zone on the border with Kuwait was divided. In early July 2000, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait agreed to demarcate the maritime border; The Kuwaiti possessions of Karukh and the island of Umm al-Maradim remain the object of dispute. On June 12, 2000, a border agreement was concluded with Yemen, which established part of the border between the two countries. However, much of the border with Yemen is still undefined. Saudi Arabia's border with Qatar was finally established by agreements signed in June 1999 and March 2001. The position and status of the border with the United Arab Emirates is not specified; the current border de facto reflects the 1974 agreement. Similarly, the border with Oman remains undemarcated.

Armed forces.

Since the 1970s, Saudi Arabia has spent enormous amounts of money expanding and modernizing its military. After the Gulf War in 1991, the country's armed forces were further expanded and equipped with the latest weapons, much of which came from the United States. According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, Saudi Arabia's military budget in 2002 amounted to $18.7 billion, or 11% of GDP. The armed forces consist of ground forces, air and naval forces, air defense forces, the National Guard, and the Ministry of Internal Forces. The Supreme Commander-in-Chief is the King; direct leadership of the armed forces is exercised by the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff. All command positions are held by members of the ruling family. The total number of regular armed forces is about 126.5 thousand people. (2001). The ground forces (75 thousand people) have 9 armored, 5 mechanized, 1 airborne brigade, 1 regiment of the Royal Guard, 8 artillery divisions. In service there are 1055 tanks, 3105 armored personnel carriers, St. 1000 units of artillery and rocket launchers. The Air Force (20 thousand people) are armed with St. 430 combat aircraft and approx. 100 helicopters. The air defense forces (16 thousand people) include 33 missile divisions. The Navy (15.5 thousand people) consists of two flotillas and is armed with approx. 100 combat and auxiliary ships. The main naval bases are Jeddah and Jubail. In the mid-1950s, the National Guard was also created from tribal militias loyal to the royal family (about 77 thousand, including 20 thousand militias of tribal formations), which, according to Western experts, significantly exceeds regular forces in terms of level of training and weapons. Its task is to ensure the security of the ruling dynasty, protect oil fields, airfields, ports, and suppress anti-government protests. In addition to the regular armed forces, there is also a Border Guard Corps (10.5 thousand) and coast guard troops (4.5 thousand). Recruitment of the armed forces is carried out on the principle of voluntary recruitment.

ECONOMY

Currently, the basis of the Saudi Arabian economy is free private enterprise. Meanwhile, the government exercises control over major areas of economic activity. Saudi Arabia has the largest oil reserves in the world, is considered the largest oil exporter and plays a leading role in OPEC. Proven reserves of crude oil amount to 261.7 billion barrels, or 35 billion tons (26% of all reserves), and natural gas - about 6.339 trillion. cube m. (as of January 2002). Oil brings the country up to 90% of export revenues, 75% of government revenues and 35-45% of GDP. Approximately 25% of GDP comes from the private sector. In 1992, Saudi Arabia's GDP was equivalent to $112.98 billion, or $6,042 per capita. In 1997, GDP was $146.25 billion, or $7,792 per capita; in 1999 it increased to 191 billion dollars, or 9 thousand dollars per person; in 2001 - up to 241 billion dollars, or 8,460 dollars per person. However, real economic growth lags behind the increase in the number of inhabitants, leading to unemployment and a decrease in per capita income. The share of economic sectors not related to oil production and refining in GDP increased from 46% in 1970 to 67% in 1992 (in 1996 it decreased to 65%).

In 1999, the government announced plans to begin the privatization of electricity companies, which would follow the privatization of telecommunications companies. To reduce the kingdom's dependence on oil and increase employment for the rapidly growing Saudi population, the private sector has expanded rapidly in recent years. The Saudi government's main priorities in the near future are to allocate additional funds for the development of water infrastructure and education, as water shortages and rapid population growth prevent the country from being fully self-sufficient in agricultural products.

Oil industry and its role.

The largest holder of oil concessions and the main oil producer is the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO). Since the early 1970s, it has been under the control of the Saudi Arabian government, and before that it was entirely owned by a consortium of American companies. The company received a concession in 1933 and began exporting oil in 1938. The Second World War interrupted the development of the oil industry, which resumed in 1943 with the construction of an oil refinery at the oil port of Ras Tannur. Oil production gradually increased from 2.7 thousand tons/day before 1944 to 33.5 thousand tons/day in 1947 and 68.1 thousand tons/day in 1949. By 1977, daily oil production in Saudi Arabia increased to 1. 25 million tons and remained high throughout the 1980s, until it began to decline as a result of decreased demand for oil on the world market. In 1992, approx. 1.15 million tons/day, with 97% of production coming from ARAMCO. Other smaller companies also produce oil, such as the Japanese Arabian Oil Company, which operates offshore near the Kuwait border, and the Getty Oil Company, which produces onshore near the Kuwait border. In 1996, Saudi Arabia's quota, determined by OPEC, was approx. 1.17 million tons per day. In 2001, average production was 8.6 billion barrels/day (460 billion tons/year). In addition, it uses reserves located in the so-called “neutral zone” on the border with Kuwait, which give it an additional 600 thousand barrels of oil per day. The largest oil fields are located in the eastern part of the country, on the coast of the Persian Gulf or on the shelf.

Main oil refineries: Aramco - Ras Tanura (capacity 300 thousand barrels/day), Rabigh (325 thousand barrels/day), Yanbu (190 thousand barrels/day), Riyadh (140 thousand barrels/day), Jeddah ( 42 thousand barrels/day), Aramco-Mobil - Yanbu (332 thousand barrels/day), Petromin/Shell - al-Jubail (292 thousand barrels/day), Arabian Oil Company - Ras al-Khafji (30 thousand . barrels/day).

The most important factor in the development of the oil industry is the close and mutually beneficial relationship that has developed between ARAMCO and Saudi Arabia. ARAMCO's activities contributed to the influx of qualified personnel into the country and the creation of new jobs for Saudis.

Significant changes in the relationship between oil companies and the government of Saudi Arabia began in 1972. In accordance with the agreement signed by the parties, the government received 25% of ARAMCO's assets. It was established that Saudi Arabia's share would gradually increase to 51% by 1982. However, in 1974 the government accelerated this process and acquired ownership of 60% of ARAMCO shares. In 1976, oil companies promised to transfer all ARAMCO properties to Saudi Arabia. In 1980, all ARAMCO property was transferred to the Saudi Arabian government. In 1984, a citizen of Saudi Arabia became the president of the company for the first time. Since 1980, the government of Saudi Arabia began to determine oil prices and production volumes itself, and oil companies received rights to develop oil fields as government subcontractors.

The growth in oil production was accompanied by a significant increase in revenues from its sales, especially after the quadruple jump in oil prices in 1973-1974, which led to a gigantic increase in government revenues, which increased from $334 million in 1960 to $2.7 billion in 1972, $30 billion in 1974, $33.5 billion in 1976 and $102 billion in 1981. Subsequently, demand for oil on the world market began to decline, and by 1989 Saudi Arabia’s oil export revenues fell to $24 billion The crisis that began after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990 again raised world oil prices; Accordingly, Saudi Arabia's revenues from oil exports increased in 1991 to almost 43.5 billion dollars. In 1998, as a result of a sharp drop in world oil prices at the beginning of the year, Saudi Arabia's revenues from oil exports amounted to 43.7 billion dollars.

Industry.

The share of industry in the country's GDP is 47% (1998). Industrial production growth in 1997 was 1%. In the past, Saudi Arabia's industry was underdeveloped, especially non-oil industries. In 1962, the government General Organization of Petroleum and Mineral Resources (PETROMIN) was created, whose task is to develop the oil and mining industries, as well as the creation of new oil, mining and metallurgical enterprises. In 1975, the Ministry of Industry and Energy was formed, to which responsibility for PETROMIN enterprises not related to oil production and refining was transferred. PETROMIN's largest projects were the steel plant in Jeddah, built in 1968, and the oil refineries in Jeddah and Riyadh, built in the late 1960s and early 1970s. PETROMIN also provided 51% of the funds for the construction of a nitrogen fertilizer plant in Dammam, completed in 1970.

In 1976, the government-owned Saudi Arabian Heavy Industry Corporation (SABIK) was created - a holding company with an initial capital of $2.66 billion. By 1994, SABIC owned 15 large enterprises in Al-Jubail, Yanbu and Jeddah, which produced chemicals, plastics, and industrial gas , steel and other metals. Saudi Arabia has well-developed food and glass industries, handicrafts and the building materials industry, in particular cement. In 1996, industrial production amounted to approx. 55% of GDP.

Back in the 1st millennium BC. residents of the Arabian Peninsula mined gold, silver and copper in deposits located approximately 290 km northeast of Jeddah. Currently, these deposits are being developed again, and in 1992 approx. 5 tons of gold.

Electricity production in Saudi Arabia increased from 344 kW in 1970 to 17,049 mW in 1992. To date, approx. 6,000 cities and rural settlements throughout the country. In 1998, electricity production was 19,753 MW, with an annual increase in electricity demand of 4.5% expected over the next two decades. To meet them, electricity production will need to be increased to approximately 59,000 MW.

Agriculture.

The share of agriculture in the country's GDP increased from 1.3% in 1970 to more than 6.4% in 1993 and 6% in 1998. During this period, production of staple foods increased from 1.79 million tons to 7 million tons. Saudi Arabia is completely devoid of permanent watercourses. Lands suitable for cultivation occupy 7 million hectares, or less than 2% of its territory. Despite the fact that the average annual rainfall is only 100 mm, agriculture in Saudi Arabia, using modern technology and machinery, is a dynamically developing industry. The area of ​​cultivated land increased from 161.8 thousand hectares in 1976 to 3 million hectares in 1993, and Saudi Arabia transformed from a country that imported most of its food into a food exporter. In 1992, agricultural products amounted to $5.06 billion in monetary terms, while the export of wheat, dates, dairy products, eggs, fish, poultry, vegetables and flowers brought in income of $533 million. The share of the agricultural sector in GDP from 1985 to 1995 increased by 6.0% per year. The country also produces barley, corn, millet, coffee, alfalfa and rice. An important industry is livestock farming, represented by the breeding of camels, sheep, goats, donkeys and horses.

Long-term hydrological studies, begun in 1965, have revealed significant water resources suitable for agricultural use. In addition to deep wells throughout the country, the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources operates more than 200 reservoirs with a total capacity of 450 million cubic meters. m. The country is the world's largest producer of desalinated water. In the mid-1990s, 33 desalination plants desalinated 2.2 billion liters of seawater daily, thus satisfying 70% of the population's drinking water needs.

The Al Hasa agricultural project alone, completed in 1977, irrigated 12 thousand hectares and provided jobs for 50 thousand people. Other major irrigation projects include the Wadi Jizan project on the Red Sea coast (8 thousand hectares) and the Abha project in the Asirah mountains, in the southwest. In 1998, the government announced a new agricultural development project worth $294 million. The budget of the Ministry of Agriculture increased from $395 million in 1997 to $443 million in 1998.

Transport.

Until the 1950s, transport of goods within Saudi Arabia was carried out mainly by camel caravans. Built in 1908, the Hejaz railway (1300 km, including 740 km along Hejaz) has not functioned since the First World War. To transport pilgrims, road traffic was used along the Najaf (in Iraq) - Hail - Medina highway.

The start of oil production completely changed the country's economy and ensured its rapid growth. The impetus for rapid development was the creation of a network of roads, ports and communications. In the 1970s-1990s, an extensive road network was created that connected vast arid areas located in remote parts of the country. The largest highway crosses the Arabian Peninsula from Dammam on the Persian Gulf through Riyadh and Mecca to Jeddah on the Red Sea. In 1986, construction was completed on a 24-kilometer highway built over a causeway connecting Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. As a result of large-scale construction, the length of paved roads increased from 1,600 km in 1960 to more than 44,104 km of highways and 102,420 km of dirt roads in 1997.

The railway network has expanded significantly. There is one railway linking Riyadh through the Hofuf oasis with the port of Dammam on the Persian Gulf (571 km); all R. In the 1980s, the railway was extended to the industrial center of Al Jubail, located north of Dammam; in 1972 a branch was built from the main highway to El-Kharj (35.5 km). The total length of railways is 1392 km (2002).

The country has an extensive network of pipelines: the length of crude oil pipelines is 6,400 km, petroleum products - 150 km, gas pipelines - 2,200 km (including liquid natural gas - 1,600 km). A major trans-Arabian oil pipeline connects oil fields in the Persian Gulf with ports in the Red Sea. The main ports in the Persian Gulf are Ras Tanura, Dammam, Al Khobar and Mina Saud; on the Red Sea: Jeddah (through which the bulk of imports and the main flow of pilgrims to Mecca and Medina go), Jizan and Yanbu.

Foreign trade transportation is carried out mainly by sea. The Saudi National Shipping Company has 21 vessels for transporting petroleum products. In total, the maritime merchant fleet consists of 71 vessels with a carrying capacity of 1.53 million tons deadweight (including a number of vessels sailing under foreign flags).

There are three international (in Riyadh, Jeddah and Dhahran) and 206 regional and local airports and aircraft landing sites, as well as five helicopter stations (2002). Aviation fleet - 113 transport and passenger aircraft. Air lines of Saudi Arabian Airlines connect Riyadh with the capitals of the Near and Middle East.

The state budget.

The budget of Saudi Arabia in 1993-1994 was $46.7 billion, in 1992-1993 - $52.5 billion, and in 1983-1984 - $69.3 billion. Such fluctuations were a consequence of falling export revenues oil, providing 80% of all state revenues. However, in FY 1994, $11.5 billion was allocated for construction and renovation programs and $7.56 billion for higher education, universities, industrial development, and other development projects such as improving salinity soils and electrification. In 2003, the revenue side of the budget of Saudi Arabia was $46 billion, and expenditures - $56.5 billion; in 2000, the revenue side of the budget was $41.9 billion, expenditures - $49.4 billion, in 1997 budget revenues - $43 billion, and expenditures - $48 billion, the budget deficit was $5 billion. Expenditures in the 1998 budget are planned at $47 billion, and revenues - $52 billion. Only Since the end of 1999, rapidly rising oil prices have allowed the country to achieve a budget surplus ($12 billion in 2000). The country's external debt decreased from $28 billion (1998) to $25.9 billion (2003).

Since 1970, five-year development plans have been adopted. The Fifth Five Year Plan (1990-1995) aimed to strengthen the private sector, develop education, health and social welfare; they also provided for an increase in defense spending. The sixth five-year development plan (1995-1999) provided for the continuation of the economic policies of the previous period. The main attention is paid to the development of economic activity in sectors of the economy not related to the oil industry, primarily in the private sector, with a special emphasis on industry and agriculture. The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1999-2003) focused on economic diversification and strengthening the role of the private sector in the Saudi economy. During 2000-2004, the Saudi government aims to achieve an average annual GNP growth of 3.16%, with an expected growth of 5.04% in the private sector and 4.01% in non-oil sectors. The government has also set a target of creating 817,300 new job openings for Saudi nationals.

External economic relations Saudi Arabia reflects its role as the world's leading oil exporter. Most of the profits from foreign trade were invested abroad and went to help foreign countries, particularly Egypt, Jordan and other Arab countries. Even after the fall in oil prices in the mid and late 1980s, the country maintained a positive foreign trade balance: if in 1991 imports totaled $29.6 billion and exports totaled $48.5 billion, then in 2001 these figures increased to 39.5 and 71 billion dollars, respectively. The trade surplus eventually grew from $18.9 billion (1991) to $31.5 billion (2001).

Saudi Arabia's main imports are industrial equipment, vehicles, weapons, food, construction materials, scientific equipment, chemical products, textiles and clothing. The main flow of imports comes from the USA (16.6%), Japan (10.4%), Great Britain (6.1%), Germany (7.4%), France (5%), Italy (4%) (at 2001). The government has promised to make appropriate changes to trade, investment and tax laws in preparation for joining the World Trade Organization (WTO).
The main export item is oil and petroleum products (90%). In 2001, the main exporting countries were: Japan (15.8%), USA (18.5%), South Korea (10.3%), Singapore (5.4%), India (3.5%). Oil, which provides the main export earnings, is supplied to the USA, Japan and Western Europe. Due to the growth of industrial production, Saudi Arabia began to export petrochemicals, consumer goods and food products. In 1997, the country's foreign exchange reserves amounted to $7.57 billion.

Saudi Arabia is one of the world's largest economic donors: in 1993 it provided $100 million for the reconstruction of Lebanon; Since 1993, the country has transferred $208 million in aid to the Palestinians.

Monetary system.

Since 1928: 1 sovereign = 10 riyal = 110 kersham, since 1952: 1 sovereign = 40 riyal = 440 kersham, since 1960: 1 Saudi riyal = 100 halalam. The functions of the central bank are performed by the Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Religion.

Religion has always played a dominant role in Saudi society and still determines the lifestyle of the majority of the population. The majority of the inhabitants of Saudi Arabia, including the ruling house of the Saudis, belong to the followers of Wahhabism - one of the movements in Islam, which received its name after the name of a man who lived in the 18th century. reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. They call themselves muwahhids, “monotheists,” or simply Muslims. Wahhabism is an ascetic, puritanical movement within the framework of the most strict Hanbali religious-legal school (madhab) in Sunni Islam, in which special attention is paid to the strict implementation of the precepts of Islam. Wahhabis are the guardians of sacred places, under their control the pilgrimage to Mecca takes place. There are also followers of other sects of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia - in Asir, Hijaz and Eastern Arabia. Al-Hasa, in the east of the country, has a significant Shia population (15%). The Constitution of Saudi Arabia contains a categorical order for citizens of the country to practice Islam. Non-Muslim religions are only allowed among foreign workers. Any public display of belonging to a non-Muslim religion (pectoral crosses, the Bible, etc.), the sale of goods with non-Islamic symbols, as well as public worship are strictly prohibited. Individuals found to be “illegally practicing” their religion may face legal punishment or expulsion from the country. The entire social and cultural life of the country is regulated by the Muslim Lunar calendar (lunar hijri), such events as the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj), the month-long fast (Ramadan), the holiday of breaking the fast (Eid al-Fitr), the holiday of sacrifice (Eid al-Adha).

At the head of the religious community is the Council of Ulema, which interprets Muslim laws. Every city has public morality committees that monitor compliance with the rules of conduct. At the beginning of the 20th century. The Ulema Council opposed the introduction of the telephone, radio and automobile into Saudi Arabia on the grounds that such innovations were contrary to Sharia. However, changing conditions, particularly rising prosperity and the arrival of Western technology in Saudi Arabia, led to a compromise between the demands of modern life and the restrictions of Sharia law. Over time the problem was solved. This was formalized by a decree of the Council of Ulema (fatwa), declaring that Western innovations, from airplanes and television to commercial legislation, did not contradict Islam. However, most of the strict Wahhabi rules continue to apply, for example, all women, Arab or European, are prohibited from mixing with men in public places and driving a car.

Lifestyle.

Arab nomads inhabiting desert areas roam between pastures and oases in search of food and water. Their traditional home is tents woven from black sheep and goat wool. Sedentary Arabs are characterized by dwellings made of sun-dried bricks, whitewashed or painted with ocher. Slums, once quite common, have now become rare thanks to government housing policies.

The staple foods of the Arabs are mutton, lamb, chicken and game, seasoned with rice and raisins. Common dishes include soups and stews cooked with onions and lentils. A lot of fruits are eaten, especially dates and figs, as well as nuts and vegetables. A popular drink is coffee. Camel, sheep and goat milk is consumed. Sheep's milk ghee (dahn) is commonly used for cooking.

The status of women.

Men play a dominant role in Saudi society. A woman cannot appear in a public place without a veil over her face and a cape that covers her body from head to toe. Even in her home, she may only leave her face uncovered in front of the men in her family. The women's ("forbidden") half of the house, the harim (hence the word "harem"), is separated from the part where guests are received. Among the Bedouins, women are usually freer; they may appear in society without a veil over their faces and talk with strangers, but they nevertheless occupy a separate tent or part of the family tent. Marriage is considered a civil contract and is accompanied by a financial agreement between the spouses, which must be registered in a religious court. Although romantic love is a perennial theme in Arabic, especially Bedouin, poetry, marriages are typically arranged without the participation or consent of the bride and groom. The main responsibility of the wife is to care for her husband and meet his needs, as well as raise children. Marriages are generally monogamous, although a man is allowed to have up to four wives. Only the wealthiest citizens can afford to enjoy this privilege, but even so, preference is given to one rather than several wives. The husband can apply to the judge (qadi) for a divorce at any time, the only restrictions being the marriage contract and the relationship between the families concerned. A woman can approach a qadi for a divorce only if there are grounds for doing so, such as mistreatment and meager maintenance by her husband, or sexual neglect.

Healthcare.

The country has a free healthcare system. Thanks to high spending on health care (over 8% of the budget), medical care in the kingdom has reached a very high level over the past decades. It applies to almost the entire population of the country - from residents of large cities to Bedouin tribes wandering in the desert. In 2003, the birth rate was 37.2, mortality - 5.79 per 1 thousand people; infant mortality - 47 per 1 thousand newborns. Average life expectancy is 68 years. Immunization of infants and young children is mandatory. The creation of an epidemic control system in 1986 made it possible to eliminate diseases such as cholera, plague and yellow fever. The healthcare structure is mixed. In 1990-1991, there were 163 hospitals (25,835 beds) operating in the country, subordinate to the Ministry of Health. About 1/3 of the medical institutions belonged to other ministries and departments (3,785 beds). In addition, there were 64 private hospitals (6,479 beds). There were 12,959 doctors (544 patients per doctor) and 29,124 paramedical personnel.

Education.

Education is free and open to all citizens, although not compulsory. In 1926, a law was passed on compulsory primary education and the creation of secular public schools. In 1954, the Ministry of Education was created and began implementing educational programs that focused on primary education and vocational training, as well as religious education. In the late 1950s, these programs covered secondary and higher education. In 1960, a law was passed on compulsory education for girls, women's pedagogical schools were opened, and in 1964 a law was passed on the opening of higher educational institutions for girls.

For many years, spending on education occupied second place in the budget, and in 1992 this item even moved to first place. In 1995, government spending on education was $12 billion, or 12% of all spending. In 1994, the education system included 7 universities, 83 institutes and 18 thousand schools, in 1996 - 21 thousand schools (290 thousand teachers). In the 1996/1997 academic year, approx. 3.8 million children. The age for entering school is 6 years. Primary school is 6 years old, secondary school consists of two levels: junior high school (3 years) and complete secondary school (3 years). Education for boys and girls is separate. In the early 1990s, girls made up 44% of the 3 million primary and secondary school students and 46% of the total university student population. Education for girls is managed by a special supervisory board, which also oversees educational programs for adult women. Students are provided with textbooks and medical care. There is a special department dealing with schools for sick children. In accordance with the Fifth 5-year Development Plan, $1.6 billion was allocated for the development of technical education and vocational training in areas such as medicine, agriculture, education, etc.

There are 16 universities and 7 universities in the country. Universities are under the authority of the Ministry of Higher Education. These include the University of Islamic Studies in Medina (founded in 1961), the University of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. King Fahd in Dhahran, University. King Abd al-Aziz in Jeddah (founded in 1967), University. King Faisal (with branches in Dammam and Al-Hofuf) (founded in 1975), Islamic University. Imam Muhammad ibn Saud in Riyadh (founded in 1950, university status since 1974), Umm al-Qura University in Mecca (founded in 1979) and the University. King Saud in Riyadh (founded in 1957). The number of university students in 1996 was 143,787 people, teaching staff - 9,490 people. About 30 thousand students study abroad.

Thanks to government educational programs, the authorities managed to significantly reduce the level of illiteracy among the population. If in 1972 the number of illiterate people reached 80% of the population, then by 2003 it was 21.2% (men - 15.3%, women - 29.2%).

The largest libraries.

National Library (founded in 1968), Saud Library, Riyadh University Library, Mahmudiyya Library, Arif Hikmat Library and Medina University Library.

Culture.

Religion permeates the entire society: it shapes and determines the cultural and artistic life of the country. Historically, Saudi Arabia has not been subject to the foreign cultural influences that other Arab states have experienced. The country lacks literary traditions comparable to those of the Arab Mediterranean countries. Perhaps the only famous Saudi writers are historians of the late 19th century, of whom Osman ibn Bishr can be considered the most famous. The lack of literary tradition in Saudi Arabia is partly compensated by deep-rooted traditions in the field of oral prose and poetry, dating back to pre-Islamic times. Music is not a traditional art form in Saudi Arabia. Its development in recent decades as a means of artistic expression has been curtailed by the ban imposed by the Ulema Council on its performance for entertainment purposes. There are few performers of folk music and songs, and they are all men. Among the most famous musical performers are Saudi Arabia's first pop star Abdu Majid-e-Abdallah and the Arabic lute (ud) virtuoso Abadi al-Johar. Egyptian pop music is also popular in the country. The same strict ban has been introduced on the depiction of human faces and figures in painting and sculpture, although this does not apply to photography. Artistic pursuits are limited to the creation of architectural ornaments, such as friezes and mosaics, incorporating traditional forms of Islamic art.

Wahhabism does not approve of the construction of elaborately decorated mosques, so modern religious architecture is inexpressive, in contrast to ancient, aesthetically more interesting ones (for example, the Kaaba sanctuary in Mecca). The most significant religious architectural work of recent years appears to have been the restoration and decoration of the mosque on the burial site of the Prophet in Medina, and the major expansion and renovation of the Great Mosque in Mecca. The severity of religious architecture is offset by the flourishing of civil architecture. In cities, palaces, public buildings and private houses are being built on a large scale; Most of them harmoniously combine modern ideas and traditional design.

There are no theaters or public cinemas in the country, and shows and performances are prohibited.

Print, radio broadcasting, television, Internet.

The activities of the Saudi media are the most regulated in the entire Arab world. They are not allowed to criticize the government and the royal family, or question religious institutions. Only since 2002-2003 have there been signs of liberalization of state policy regarding the media. The press and television began to cover topics that were previously considered taboo. Newspapers in Saudi Arabia can only be established by royal decree. 10 daily newspapers and several dozen magazines are published (2003). In Arabic: “Al-Bilyad”, since 1934, circulation 30 thousand copies; Al Jazeera; “An-Nadwa”, since 1958, 35 thousand copies; “Al-Medina al-Munawwara”, since 1937, 55 thousand copies; "Riyadh", since 1964, 140 thousand copies; Arab News. The government news agency is the Saudi Press Agency (SPA), founded in 1970.

Broadcasting has been going on since 1948, with 76 state-controlled radio stations (1998) broadcasting news reports, public speakers, sermons, educational and religious programs. Since 2002, the opposition radio station Voice of Reform, owned by the Movement for Islamic Reforms in Arabia, has also been broadcasting from Europe.
Television has existed since 1965, there are 3 television networks and 117 television stations (1997). All television and radio broadcasting is carried out by the state Broadcasting Service of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The Chairman of the Radio and Television Supervision Authority is the Minister of Culture and Information.

The cellular telephone network has been in existence since 1981; Internet - since the late 1990s, there are 22 Internet service providers (2003), 1453 thousand registered users (2002). According to unofficial data, 2/3 of Internet users are women. Government censorship and security systems are in place to block access to websites considered offensive to Islamic morality. In total, access to several thousand websites is blocked.

STORY

Since ancient times (2 thousand BC), the territory of the Arabian Peninsula was inhabited by nomadic Arab tribes who called themselves “al-Arab” (Arabs). In the 1st millennium BC. in various parts of the peninsula, the ancient Arab states began to take shape - the Minaan (before 650 BC), the Sabaean (c. 750-115 BC), the Himyarite kingdom (c. 25 BC - 577 AD .). In the 6th-2nd centuries. BC. slaveholding states emerged in the north of Arabia (the Nabatean kingdom, which became a Roman province in 106 AD, etc.). The development of caravan trade between South Arabia and the states of the Mediterranean coast contributed to the development of such centers as Maqoraba (Mecca) and Yathrib (Medina). In the 2nd-5th centuries. Judaism and Christianity spread on the peninsula. Religious communities of Christians and Jews emerge on the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, as well as in Hijaz, Najran and Yemen. At the end of the 5th century. AD In Najd, an alliance of Arab tribes was formed, led by the Kinda tribe. Subsequently, his influence spread to a number of neighboring regions, including Hadhramaut and the eastern regions of Arabia. After the collapse of the union (529 AD), Mecca became the most important political center of Arabia, where in 570 AD. Prophet Muhammad was born. During this period, the country became the object of a struggle between the Ethiopian and Persian dynasties. All R. 6th century The Arabs, led by the Quraish tribe, managed to repel the attack of the Ethiopian rulers who were trying to capture Mecca. In the 7th century. AD In the western part of the Arabian Peninsula, a new religion arose - Islam, and the first Muslim theocratic state was formed - the Arab Caliphate with its capital in Medina. Under the leadership of the caliphs at the end of the 7th century. wars of conquest are unfolding outside the Arabian Peninsula. The movement of the capital of the caliphates from Medina first to Damascus (661) and then to Baghdad (749) led to the fact that Arabia became a marginal region of a huge state. In the 7th-8th centuries. Most of the territory of modern Saudi Arabia was part of the Umayyad Caliphate in the 8th and 9th centuries. - Abbasids. With the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, many small independent state formations arose on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Hijaz, which retained its significance as the religious center of Islam, at the end of the 10th-12th centuries. remained a vassal of the Fatimids in the 12th-13th centuries. - Ayyubids, and then - Mamluks (from 1425). In 1517 Western Arabia, including the Hejaz and Asir, were subordinated to the Ottoman Empire. All R. 16th century The power of the Turkish sultans extended to Al-Hasa, a region on the coast of the Persian Gulf. From this point until the end of the First World War, Western and Eastern Arabia were (intermittently) part of the Ottoman Empire. Nejd, whose population consisted of Bedouins and oasis farmers, enjoyed much greater independence. This entire area was a huge number of small feudal state formations with independent rulers in almost every village and city, constantly at odds with each other.

The first Saudi state.

The roots of modern Saudi Arabia's polity lie in the religious reform movement of the mid-18th century called Wahhabism. It was founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) and supported by Muhammad ibn Saud (r. 1726/27-1765), the leader of the Anaiza tribe who inhabited the Diriyya region in central Najd. By the mid-1780s, the Saudis had established themselves throughout Najd. They managed to unite part of the tribes of central and eastern Arabia into a religious-political confederation, the purpose of which was to spread the Wahhabi teachings and the power of the Najd emirs to the entire Arabian Peninsula. After the death of al-Wahhab (1792), Ibn Saud's son, Emir Abdel Aziz I ibn Muhammad al-Saud (1765-1803), took the title of imam, which meant the unification of both secular and spiritual power in his hands. Relying on the alliance of Wahhabi tribes, he raised the banner of a “holy war”, demanding that neighboring sheikhdoms and sultanates recognize the Wahhabi teachings and jointly oppose the Ottoman Empire. Having formed a large army (up to 100 thousand people), Abdel Aziz in 1786 began to conquer neighboring lands. In 1793, the Wahhabis captured Al-Hasa, took El-Qatif by storm, where they finally strengthened by 1795. An attempt by the Ottoman Empire to restore its power over Al-Hasa failed (1798). Simultaneously with the struggle for the Persian Gulf region, the Wahhabis launched an offensive on the Red Sea coast, raiding the outskirts of the Hejaz and Yemen and capturing oases located along the borders. By 1803, almost the entire coast of the Persian Gulf and its surrounding islands (including Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and most of Oman and Muscat) were subjugated by the Wahhabis. In the south, Asir (1802) and Abu Arish (1803) were conquered. In 1801, Abdel Aziz's armies invaded Iraq and sacked the Shiite holy city of Karbala. After killing over 4 thousand townspeople and taking treasures, they retreated back into the desert. The expedition sent after them to Arabia was defeated. Attacks on the cities of Mesopotamia and Syria continued until 1812, but outside the Arabian Peninsula, al-Wahhab's teachings did not find support among the local population. The destruction of cities in Iraq turned the entire Shiite community against the Wahhabis. In 1803, as a sign of revenge for the desecration of the shrines of Karbala, Abdel Aziz was killed by a Shiite right in the Ed-Diriya mosque. But even under his heir, Emir Saud I ibn Abdulaziz (1803-1814), the Wahhabi expansion continued with renewed vigor. In April 1803, Mecca was taken by the Wahhabis, a year later - Medina, and by 1806 the entire Hijaz was subjugated.
From the end of the 18th century. the increasing frequency of Wahhabi raids began to increasingly worry the rulers of the Ottoman Empire. With the capture of the Hijaz by the Wahhabis, Saudi power extended to the holy cities of Islam - Mecca and Medina. Almost the entire territory of the Arabian Peninsula was included in the Wahhabi state. Saud received the title “Khadim al-Haramayn” (“servant of the holy cities”), which gave him the opportunity to claim leadership in the Muslim world. The loss of Hejaz was a serious blow to the prestige of the Ottoman Empire, whose clergy declared a “fatwa”, the official
religious edict, outlawing the followers of al-Wahhab. The army of the Egyptian ruler (wali) Muhammad Ali was sent to suppress the Wahhabis. However, in December 1811 the Egyptian army was completely defeated. Despite the first defeat and desperate resistance of the Wahhabis, the Egyptians took Medina in November 1812, and Mecca, Taif and Jeddah in January of the following year. They restored the annual pilgrimage to holy sites, banned by the Wahhabis, and returned control of the Hejaz to the Hashemites. After Saud's death in May 1814, his son Abdullah ibn Saud ibn Abdul Aziz became the emir of Najd. At the beginning of 1815, the Egyptians inflicted a series of heavy defeats on the Wahhabi forces. The Wahhabis were defeated in Hejaz, Asir and in strategically important areas between Hejaz and Najd. However, in May 1815, Muhammad Ali had to urgently leave Arabia. In the spring of 1815 peace was signed. Under the terms of the treaty, the Hijaz came under the control of the Egyptians, and the Wahhabis retained only the regions of Central and North-Eastern Arabia. Emir Abdullah promised to obey the Egyptian governor of Medina, and also recognized himself as a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. He also pledged to ensure the safety of the Hajj and return treasures stolen by Wahhabis in Mecca. But the truce was short-lived, and in 1816 the war resumed. In 1817, as a result of a successful offensive, the Egyptians took the fortified settlements of Er-Rass, Buraydah and Unayzah. The commander of the Egyptian forces, Ibrahim Pasha, having secured the support of most tribes, invaded Najd at the beginning of 1818 and besieged Ed-Diriya in April 1818. After a five-month siege, the city fell (September 15, 1818). The last ruler of Ed-Diriya, Abdullah ibn Saud, surrendered to the mercy of the victors, was sent first to Cairo, then to Istanbul and was publicly executed there. Other Saudis were taken to Egypt. Al-Diriyah was destroyed. In all the cities of Najd, fortifications were torn down and Egyptian garrisons were installed. In 1819, the entire territory formerly belonging to the Saudis was annexed to the possessions of the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali.

Second Saudi state.

However, the Egyptian occupation lasted only a few years. The dissatisfaction of the indigenous population with the Egyptians contributed to the revival of the Wahhabi movement. In 1820, an uprising broke out in Ed-Diriya led by Misrahi ibn Saud, one of the relatives of the executed emir. Although it was suppressed, a year later the Wahhabis again managed to recover from defeat and, under the leadership of Imam Turki ibn Abdallah (1822-1834), the grandson of Muhammad ibn Saud and Abdallah's cousin, who returned from exile, restore the Saudi state. From the destroyed Ed-Diriyah, their capital was moved to Riyadh (c. 1822). In an effort to maintain friendly relations with the Ottoman rulers of Iraq, the Turks recognized the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. The Egyptian troops sent against the Wahhabis died from hunger, thirst, epidemics and partisan raids. Egyptian garrisons remained in Qasim and Shammar, but they were driven out from there in 1827. Having broken the resistance of the rebellious Bedouin tribes, the Wahhabis by 1830 again captured the coast of Al-Hasa and forced the sheikhs of Bahrain to pay them tribute. Three years later, they subjugated the entire coast of the Persian Gulf south of Al-Qatif, including part of the territory of Oman and Muscat. Only Hijaz remained under Egyptian control, which was transformed into an Egyptian province headed by a governor. Despite the loss of central and eastern Arabia, the Egyptians continued to influence the political life of these areas. In 1831 they supported the claim to the Wahhabi throne of Mashari ibn Khalid, Turki's cousin. The country began a long period of struggle for power. In 1834, Mashari, with the help of the Egyptians, took possession of Riyadh, killed Turki and sat in his place. However, a month later, Faisal ibn Turki, relying on the support of the army, dealt with Mashari and became the new ruler of Nejd (1834-1838, 1843-1865). This turn of events did not suit Muhammad Ali. The reason for the new war was Faisal's refusal to pay tribute to Egypt. In 1836, the Egyptian expeditionary army invaded Najd and a year later captured Riyadh; Faisal was captured and sent to Cairo, where he remained until 1843. In his place was Khalid I ibn Saud (1838-1842), the son of Saud and brother of Abdullah, who had previously been in Egyptian captivity. In 1840, Egyptian troops were withdrawn from the Arabian Peninsula, which was taken advantage of by the Wahhabis, who expressed dissatisfaction with Khalid’s pro-Egyptian course. In 1841, Abdullah ibn Tunayan declared himself the ruler of Nejd; Riyadh was captured by his supporters, the garrison was destroyed, and Khalid, who was at that moment in Al-Has, fled by ship to Jeddah. Abdullah's reign also turned out to be short-lived. In 1843 he was overthrown by Faisal ibn Turki, who returned from captivity. In a relatively short time, Faisal managed to restore the virtually collapsed emirate. Over the next three decades, Wahhabi Najd again began to play a leading role in the political life of central and eastern Arabia. During this period, the Wahhabis twice (1851-1852, 1859) tried to establish their control over Bahrain, Qatar, the Trucial Coast and the interior of Oman. For a brief moment, the Saudis' possessions again extended over a large area from Jabal Shammar in the north to the borders of Yemen in the south. Their further advance to the Persian Gulf coast was stopped only by British intervention. At the same time, the central government of Riyadh remained weak, the vassal tribes often quarreled among themselves and rebelled.

After the death of Faisal (1865), inter-tribal struggle was supplemented by dynastic strife. A fierce internecine struggle for the “senior table” broke out between the heirs of Faisal, who divided Najd between his three sons. In April 1871, Abdullah III ibn Faisal (1865-1871), who ruled in Riyadh, was defeated by his half-brother Saud II (1871-1875). Over the next five years, the throne changed hands at least 7 times. Each side created its own groups, as a result of which the unity of the Wahhabi community was disrupted; tribal associations were no longer subordinate to the central government. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, the Ottomans occupied Al-Hasa in 1871, and a year later - Asir. After the death of Saud (1875) and a short period of chaos, Abdullah III (1875-1889) returned to Riyadh. He had to fight not only with his brother Abdarahman, but also with the sons of Saud II.

Against the backdrop of this struggle, the Saudis found themselves overshadowed by the rival Rashidid dynasty, which ruled the emirate of Jabal Shammar in 1835. For a long time, the Rashidids were considered vassals of the Saudis, but gradually, having taken control of the trade caravan routes, they gained power and independence. Pursuing a policy of religious tolerance, the Shammar emir Muhammad ibn Rashid (1869-1897), nicknamed the Great, managed to put an end to dynastic feuds in the North of Arabia and unite Jabal Shammar and Qasim under his rule. In 1876, he recognized himself as a vassal of the Turks and, with their help, began to fight the emirs from the House of Saudis. In 1887, Abdullah III, once again overthrown by his nephew Muhammad II, turned to Ibn Rashid for help. That same year, Rashidid troops took Riyadh, installing their own governor in the city. Finding themselves virtually hostages in Hail, representatives of the Saudi dynasty recognized themselves as vassals of Ibn Rashid and pledged to regularly pay him tribute. In 1889, Abdullah, who had been appointed governor of the city, and his brother Abdarahman were allowed to return to Riyadh. Abdullah, however, died that same year; he was replaced by Abdarakhman, who soon tried to restore the independence of Nejd. In the Battle of El-Mulaid (1891), the Wahhabis and their allies were defeated. Abdarahman and his family fled to Al-Hasa and then to Kuwait, where they found refuge with the local ruler. Rashidid governors and representatives were appointed to the captured areas of Riyadh and Qasim. With the fall of Riyadh, Jabal Shammar became the only major state on the Arabian Peninsula. The possessions of the Rashidid emirs extended from the borders of Damascus and Basra in the north to Asir and Oman in the south.

Ibn Saud and the education of Saudi Arabia.

The power of the Saudi dynasty was restored by the emir Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud (full name Abd al-Aziz ibn Abdarahman ibn Faisal ibn Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Saud, later known as Ibn Saud), who returned from exile in 1901 and began a war against Rashidid dynasty. In January 1902, Ibn Saud, with the support of the ruler of Kuwait Mubarak, and a small detachment of his supporters captured Riyadh, the former capital of the Saudis. This victory allowed him to gain a foothold in Najd and gain support from both religious leaders (who proclaimed him the new emir and imam) and local tribes. By the spring of 1904, Ibn Saud had regained control over most of southern and central Najd. To fight the Wahhabis, the Rashidids in 1904 turned to the Ottoman Empire for help. Ottoman troops sent to Arabia forced Ibn Saud to briefly go on the defensive, but were soon defeated and left the country. In 1905, the military successes of the Wahhabis forced the governor (wali) of the Ottoman Empire in Iraq to recognize Ibn Saud as his vassal in Najd. Ibn Saud's domains nominally became a district of the Ottoman vilayet of Basra. Left alone, the Rashidids continued to fight for some time. But in April 1906, their emir Abdel Aziz ibn Mitab al-Rashid (1897-1906) died in battle. His successor Mitab hastened to make peace and recognized the Saudis' rights to Najd and Qasim. Through an exchange of letters, the Turkish Sultan Abdul Hamid confirmed this agreement. Ottoman troops were withdrawn from Qasim, and Ibn Saud became the sole ruler of central Arabia.

Like his ancestors, Ibn Saud sought to unite Arabia into a unitary theocratic state. This goal was facilitated not only by his military and diplomatic successes, but also by dynastic marriages, the appointment of relatives to responsible positions and the involvement of the ulema in solving state problems. The Bedouin tribes, which retained a tribal organization and did not recognize the state structure, remained unstable elements that interfered with the unity of Arabia. In an effort to achieve the loyalty of the largest tribes, Ibn Saud, on the advice of Wahhabi religious teachers, began to transfer them to settled life. For this purpose, the military-religious brotherhood of the Ikhwans (Arabic for “brothers”) was founded in 1912. All Bedouin tribes and oases that refused to join the Ikhwan movement and recognize Ibn Saud as their emir and imam began to be viewed as enemies of Najd. The Ikhwan were ordered to move to agricultural colonies (“hijras”), whose members were called upon to love their homeland, unquestioningly obey the imam-emir and not enter into any contact with Europeans and residents of the countries they ruled (including Muslims). In each Ikhwan community, a mosque was erected, which also served as a military garrison, and the Ikhwan themselves became not only farmers, but also warriors of the Saudi state. By 1915, more than 200 similar settlements were organized throughout the country, including at least 60 thousand people, ready at the first call of Ibn Saud to go to war with the “infidels.”

With the help of the Ikhwans, Ibn Saud established full control over Najd (1912), annexed Al-Hasa and the territories bordering Abu Dhabi and Muscat (1913). This allowed him to conclude a new agreement with the Ottoman Empire in May 1914. In accordance with it, Ibn Saud became the governor (wali) of the newly formed province (vilayet) of Najd. Even earlier, Great Britain recognized Al-Hasa as the possession of the Emir of Najd. Negotiations began between the two countries, which led to the signing of an agreement on friendship and alliance with the government of British India on December 26, 1915 in Darin. Ibn Saud was recognized as the emir of Najd, Qasim and Al-Hasa, independent of the Ottoman Empire, but pledged not to oppose England and coordinate his foreign policy with it, not to attack British possessions on the Arabian Peninsula, not to alienate his territory to third powers and not to enter into agreements with countries other than Great Britain, and also to start a war again against the Rashidids, who were allies of the Ottoman Empire. For this concession, the Saudis received significant military and financial assistance (in the amount of 60 pounds sterling per year). Despite the agreement, the Najdi emirate never took part in the First World War, limiting itself to spreading its influence in Arabia.

At the same time, as a result of secret correspondence between the British High Commissioner in Egypt, McMahon, and the Grand Sheriff of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi, an agreement was reached on October 24, 1915, according to which Hussein undertook to raise the Arabs to revolt against the Ottoman Empire. In return, Britain recognized the independence of the future Hashemite Arab state within its “natural borders” (parts of Syria, Palestine, Iraq and the entire Arabian Peninsula, with the exception of British protectorates and the territories of Western Syria, Lebanon and Cilicia, which were claimed by France). In accordance with the agreement, in June 1916, detachments of Hejaz tribes led by Hussein's son Faisal and British Colonel T.E. Lawrence rebelled. By accepting the title of king, Hussein declared the independence of the Hijaz from the Ottoman Empire. Taking advantage of diplomatic recognition, on October 19, 1916, he proclaimed the independence of all Arabs from the Ottoman Empire and 10 days later accepted the title of “king of all Arabs.” However, Great Britain and France, which secretly violated their obligations in the spring of 1916 (Sykes-Picot agreement), recognized him only as the king of the Hejaz. By July 1917, the Arabs cleared the Hijaz of the Turks and occupied the port of Aqaba. At the final stage of the war, troops under the command of Faisal and T.E. Lawrence took Damascus (September 30, 1918). As a result of the Truce of Mudros concluded on October 30, 1918, the dominance of the Ottoman Empire in the Arab countries was eliminated. The process of separation of the Hejaz (and other Arab possessions) from Turkey was finally completed in 1921 at a conference in Cairo.
After the end of the First World War, the activity of the Ikhwan movement on the borders of Najd led to clashes between the Saudis and most neighboring states. In 1919, in a battle near the city of Turab, located on the border between Hejaz and Najd, the Ikhwans completely destroyed the royal army of Hussein ibn Ali. The losses were so great that the sheriff of Mecca had no forces left to defend the Hijaz. In August 1920, Saudi troops led by Prince Faisal ibn Abdul Aziz al-Saud occupied Upper Asir; The emirate was declared a protectorate of Najd (finally annexed in 1923). In the same year, the city of Hail, the capital of Jabal Shammar, fell under the attacks of the Ikhwans. With the defeat the following year of the forces of Muhammad ibn Talal, the last Rashidid emir, Jabal Shammar was annexed to the Saudi dominions. On August 22, 1921, Ibn Saud was proclaimed Sultan of Najd and dependent territories. In the next two years, Ibn Saud annexed Al-Jawf and Wadi al-Sirhan, extending his power throughout northern Arabia.

Encouraged by their successes, the Ikhwan continued to advance north, invading the border areas of Iraq, Kuwait and Transjordan. Not wanting the strengthening of the Saudis, Great Britain supported the sons of Hussein - King Faisal of Iraq and Emir of Transjordan Abdullah. The Wahhabis were defeated, signing the so-called on May 5, 1922 in Uqair. the “Agreement of Muhammar” on border demarcation with Iraq and Kuwait; Neutral zones were created in disputed areas. A conference convened the following year by the British government to resolve disputed territorial issues with the participation of the rulers of Iraq, Transjordan, Najd and Hejaz ended in vain. With the conquest of small principalities in the north and south, the Saudi possessions doubled.

King Hussein's acceptance of the title of caliph of all Muslims led in 1924 to a new conflict between Najd and Hijaz. Accusing Hussein of deviating from Islamic tradition, Ibn Saud in June 1924 appealed to Muslims not to recognize him as caliph and convened a conference of ulema, at which a decision was made on war against the Hijaz. In August of the same year, the Ikhwan invaded the Hijaz and captured Mecca in October. Hussein was forced to abdicate the throne in favor of his son Ali and flee to Cyprus. The Wahhabi offensive continued the following year. Territorial concessions to Transjordan, as well as the aggravation of relations between King Hussein and England on the issue of Palestine, made it possible for Ibn Saud to achieve victory over the Hijaz with relative ease. In December 1925, Saudi troops took Jeddah and Medina, after which Ali also abdicated the throne. This event marked the fall of the Hashemite dynasty in Arabia.

As a result of the war, Hijaz was annexed to Najd. On January 8, 1926, in the Great Mosque of Mecca, Ibn Saud was proclaimed King of Hejaz and Sultan of Najd (the Saudi state received the name “Kingdom of Hejaz, Sultanate of Najd and annexed regions”). On February 16, 1926, the Soviet Union was the first to recognize the new state and establish diplomatic and trade relations with it. The Hijaz, which was granted a constitution (1926), received autonomy within a unified state; the son of Ibn Saud was appointed his viceroy, under whom a Consultative Assembly was created, appointed by him on the proposal of “eminent citizens” of Mecca. The meeting considered bills and other issues that the governor put before it, but all its decisions were of a recommendatory nature.

In October 1926, the Saudis established their protectorate over Lower Asir (the final conquest of Asir was completed in November 1930). On January 29, 1927, Ibn Saud was proclaimed king of Hejaz, Najd and the annexed regions (the state received the name “Kingdom of Hejaz and Najd and the annexed regions”). In May 1927 London was forced to recognize the independence of the Hejaz-Nejd; Ibn Saud, for his part, recognized the “special relationship” of the sheikhs of Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Treaty Oman with Great Britain (H. Clayton Treaty).

With the conquest of the Hijaz and the introduction of a new tax on pilgrims, the hajj became the main source of revenue for the treasury (in the rest of the kingdom, except for the Hijaz, taxes were collected “in kind”). In order to promote the development of the Hajj, Ibn Saud took measures to normalize relations with Western powers and their allies in Arab countries. However, on this path, Ibn Saud encountered internal opposition in the form of the Ikhwans. They regarded the modernization of the country according to the Western model (the spread of such “innovations” as telephones, cars, the telegraph, the sending of Saud’s son Faisal to the “country of unbelievers” - Egypt) as a betrayal of the basic principles of Islam. The crisis in camel farming caused by the import of cars has further increased discontent among the Bedouins.
By 1926 the Ikhwan had become uncontrollable. Their raids on Iraq and Transjordan, billed as part of the fight against the "infidels", became a serious diplomatic problem for Najd and Hejaz. In response to renewed Ikhwan raids on the Iraqi border areas, Iraqi troops occupied the neutral zone, which led to a new war between the Hashemite and Saudi dynasties (1927). Only after British aircraft bombed Ibn Saud's troops did hostilities between the two states cease. Iraq withdrew its troops from the neutral zone (1928). On February 22, 1930, Ibn Saud made peace with King Faisal of Iraq (son of the former Emir of Hijaz Hussein), ending the Saudi-Hashemite dynastic feud in the Arabian Peninsula (1919-1930).

In 1928, Ikhwan leaders, accusing Ibn Saud of betraying the cause for which they fought, openly challenged the authority of the monarch. However, the majority of the population rallied around the king, which gave him the opportunity to quickly suppress the uprising. In October 1928, a peace agreement was concluded between the king and the rebel leaders. But the massacre of the Najd traders forced Ibn Saud to undertake a new military operation against the Ikhwan (1929). Ibn Saud's actions were approved by the Council of Ulema, which believed that only the king has the right to declare a “holy war” (jihad) and rule the state. After receiving religious blessings from the ulema, Ibn Saud formed a small army from among the tribes and urban population loyal to him and inflicted a series of defeats on the Bedouin rebel groups. The civil war, however, continued until 1930, when the rebels were surrounded by the British on Kuwaiti territory and their leaders were handed over to Ibn Saud. With the defeat of the Ikhwan, the tribal associations lost their role as the main military support of Ibn Saud. During the civil war, the rebel sheikhs and their squads were completely destroyed. This victory was the final stage towards the creation of a single centralized state.

Saudi Arabia in 1932-1953.

On September 22, 1932, Ibn Saud changed the name of his state to a new one - the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This was intended not only to strengthen the unity of the kingdom and put an end to Hejaz separatism, but also to emphasize the central role of the royal house in the creation of an Arabian centralized state. Throughout the subsequent period of Ibn Saud's reign, internal problems did not pose any particular difficulties for him. At the same time, the kingdom's external relations developed ambiguously. The policy of religious intolerance alienated Saudi Arabia from most Muslim governments, which considered the Saudi regime hostile and resented the complete control the Wahhabis established over the holy cities and the hajj.

Border problems persisted in many places, especially in the south of the country. In 1932, with the support of Yemen, Emir Asir Hassan Idrisi, who had renounced his own sovereignty in favor of Ibn Saud in 1930, rebelled against Saudi Arabia. His speech was quickly suppressed. In early 1934, an armed clash occurred between Yemen and Saudi Arabia over the disputed region of Najran. In just a month and a half, Yemen was defeated and almost completely occupied by Saudi troops. The final annexation of Yemen was prevented only by the intervention of Great Britain and Italy, who saw this as a threat to their colonial interests. Hostilities ceased after the signing of the Treaty of Taif (June 23, 1934), according to which Saudi Arabia achieved recognition by the Yemeni government of the inclusion of Asir, Jizan and part of Najran. The final demarcation of the border with Yemen was carried out in 1936.

Border problems also occurred in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula after Ibn Saud granted an oil concession to Standard Oil of California (SOCAL) in 1933. Negotiations with Great Britain over the demarcation of borders with neighboring British protectorates and possessions - Qatar, Trucial Oman, Muscat and Oman and the Eastern Protectorate of Aden - ended in failure.

Despite the mutual animosity that existed between the Saudi and Hashemite dynasties, a treaty with Transjordan was signed in 1933, ending years of intense hostility between the Saudis and the Hashemites. In 1936, Saudi Arabia took steps towards normalizing relations with a number of neighboring states. A non-aggression pact was concluded with Iraq. That same year, diplomatic relations with Egypt, severed in 1926, were restored.
In May 1933, due to a decrease in the number of pilgrims in Mecca and tax revenues from the Hajj, Ibn Saud was forced to grant a concession for oil exploration in Saudi Arabia to Standard Oil of California (SOCAL). In March 1938, the California Arabian Standard Oil Company (CASOK, a subsidiary of Standard Oil of California) discovered oil in Al-Has. Under these conditions, KASOC achieved in May 1939 a concession for oil exploration and production in a large part of the country (industrial production began in 1938).

The outbreak of World War II prevented full-scale development of the Al Hasa oil fields, but part of Ibn Saud's loss of income was compensated by British and then American aid. During the war, Saudi Arabia broke off diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany (1941) and Italy (1942), but remained neutral almost until its end (officially declared war on Germany and Japan on February 28, 1945). At the end of the war and especially after it, American influence increased in Saudi Arabia. In 1943, the United States established diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia and extended the Lend-Lease law to it. In early February 1944, American oil companies began construction of a trans-Arabian oil pipeline from Dhahran to the Lebanese port of Saida. At the same time, the Saudi Arabian government authorized the construction of a large American air base in Dhahran, which was necessary for the United States for the war against Japan. In February 1945, US President Franklin Roosevelt and King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia signed an agreement on a US monopoly on the development of Saudi fields.

The significant increase in oil production at the end of the war contributed to the formation of the working class. In 1945, the first strike occurred at the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO, until 1944 KASOC) enterprises. The company's board was forced to satisfy the basic demands of the workers (increasing wages, reducing working hours and providing annual paid leave). As a result of new strikes in 1946-1947, the government adopted a labor law (1947), according to which a 6-day working week with an 8-hour working day was introduced at all enterprises in the country.

The development of the oil industry became the reason for the formation of the administrative management system. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the ministries of finance, internal affairs, defense, education, agriculture, communications, foreign affairs, etc. were created (1953).

In 1951, an agreement “on mutual defense and mutual assistance” was signed between the United States and Saudi Arabia. The United States received the right to further build a military air base in Dhahran (in Al-Has), where the headquarters of the ARAMCO company was located. Also in 1951, a new concession agreement was signed with ARAMCO, according to which the company switched to the principle of “equal distribution of profits,” donating half of all its oil revenues to the kingdom.

Relying on significantly increased resources, Ibn Saud again put forward territorial claims against the British protectorates of Qatar, Abu Dhabi and Muscat. In the disputed territories, ARAMCO search parties began to conduct survey work. After unsuccessful negotiations with Great Britain, Saudi Arabian military forces occupied the Al-Buraimi oasis, which belonged to Abu Dhabi (1952).

Saudi Arabia under Saud.

The full scale of the changes caused by the huge revenues from oil exports appeared already during the reign of Ibn Saud's successor, his second son Saud ibn Abdul Aziz, who ascended the throne in November 1953. In October 1953, the Council of Ministers was established, headed by Saud. That same month, the government suppressed a major strike involving 20,000 ARAMCO oil workers. The new king issued laws prohibiting strikes and demonstrations and providing for the most severe punishments (including the death penalty) for speaking out against the royal regime.

In 1954, an agreement was reached between Saud and Onassis to create an independent oil transport company, but ARAMCO, with the help of the US State Department, thwarted the deal.

Relations with neighboring states during this period remained uneven. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Saudi Arabia's relations with a number of neighboring states improved somewhat, which was a consequence of the formation of the state of Israel and the hostility towards it from Arab countries. In foreign policy, Saud followed the behests of his father and, together with Egyptian President Nasser, supported the slogan of Arab unity. Saudi Arabia opposed the creation of the Middle East Cooperation Organization (METO), formed by Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Great Britain (1955). On October 27, 1955, Saudi Arabia entered into an agreement on a defensive alliance with Egypt and Syria. That same month, British forces from Abu Dhabi and Muscat regained control of the Buraimi oasis, which had been seized by Saudi Arabian police in 1952. Saudi Arabia's attempt to find support at the UN was unsuccessful. In 1956, an additional agreement was signed with Egypt and Yemen on a military alliance for 5 years in Jeddah. During the Suez Crisis (1956), Saudi Arabia took the side of Egypt, providing a loan of $10 million, and sent its troops to Jordan. On November 6, 1956, Saud announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Great Britain and France and the introduction of an oil embargo.
In 1956, a strike by Arab workers at ARAMCO enterprises and student unrest in Najd were brutally suppressed. Saud issued a royal decree in June 1956 banning strikes under threat of dismissal.

A turn in Saudi foreign policy began in 1957 after Saud's visit to the United States. Taking a sharply negative stance towards pan-Arabism and Nasser's social reform program, Saud reached an agreement with the Hashemite rulers of Jordan and Iraq in March 1957. Islamists who emigrated from Egypt under pressure from Nasser found refuge in the country. In February 1958, Saudi Arabia opposed the formation of a new state by Egypt and Syria - the United Arab Republic (UAR). A month later, official Damascus accused King Saud of involvement in a conspiracy to overthrow the Syrian government and in preparing an assassination attempt on the President of Egypt. Also in 1958, relations with Iraq were practically interrupted.

Huge expenses of Saud for personal needs, maintenance of the court, and bribery of tribal leaders significantly undermined the Saudi economy. Despite annual oil revenues, the country's debt grew to $300 million by 1958, and the Saudi riyal devalued by 80%. Ineffective management of the kingdom's finances and inconsistent domestic and foreign policies, Saud's systematic interference in the internal affairs of other Arab countries led to a crisis of governance in 1958. Under pressure from members of the royal family, Saud was forced in March 1958 to transfer full executive and legislative powers to the prime minister, who appointed his younger brother Faisal. In May 1958, reform of the state apparatus began. A permanent Council of Ministers was formed, the composition of which was appointed by the head of government. The cabinet was responsible to the prime minister; the king retained only the right to sign decrees and use a veto. At the same time, the government established financial control over all income of the kingdom, and the expenses of the royal court were significantly reduced. As a result of the measures taken, the government managed to balance the budget, stabilize the national currency and reduce the state's internal debt. However, the struggle within the ruling house continued.

Relying on the tribal aristocracy and a group of liberal-minded royals led by Prince Talal ibn Abdul Aziz, Saud regained direct control of the government in December 1960 and again assumed the post of prime minister. Along with Saud's sons, Talal and his supporters were included in the new cabinet, who advocated political reforms, general parliamentary elections and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

During this period, political associations emerged advocating the democratization of public life, the creation of a responsible government, the development of national industry and the use of the country’s wealth in the interests of the entire population: “Freedom Movement in Saudi Arabia”, “Liberal Party”, “Reform Party”, “National Front” reforms." However, the government was unable to take any real steps towards reforming the regime. In protest against the continuation of conservative traditionalist policies, Prince Talal resigned and in May 1962, along with a group of his supporters, fled to Lebanon and then to Egypt. In the same year, in Cairo, he formed the National Liberation Front of Saudi Arabia, which advocated carrying out radical socialist reforms in the country and establishing a republic. Talal's flight, as well as the overthrow of the monarchy in neighboring Yemen and the proclamation of the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) in September 1962 led to the severance of diplomatic relations between Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Republic (UAR).

Over the next five years, Saudi Arabia was effectively at war in Egypt and the YAR, providing direct military assistance to the deposed Imam of Yemen. The war in Yemen reached its climax in 1963, when Saudi Arabia, in connection with the threat of an Egyptian attack, announced the beginning of general mobilization. The deterioration of relations between Saudi Arabia and Syria dates back to the same period, after the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (Baath) came to power in this country in March 1963.

Saudi Arabia under Faisal.

In October 1962, due to the deterioration of the economic situation in the country, the cabinet of ministers was again headed by Prince Faisal. He carried out a number of reforms in the economy, social sphere and education, which the liberals insisted on. The government abolished slavery and the slave trade (1962), nationalized the port of Jeddah, issued laws protecting the positions of Saudi industrialists from foreign competition, provided them with loans, and exempted them from taxes and duties on the import of industrial equipment. In 1962, the state company PETROMIN (General Directorate of Petroleum and Mining Resources) was created to control the activities of foreign companies, the production, transportation and marketing of all minerals, as well as the development of the oil refining industry. It was planned to carry out other large-scale reforms in the field of public administration: the adoption of a constitution, the creation of local authorities and the formation of an independent judiciary headed by the Supreme Judicial Council, including representatives of secular and religious circles. Attempts by the opposition to influence the situation in the country were harshly suppressed. In 1963-1964, anti-government protests in Hail and Najd were suppressed. In 1964, conspiracies in the Saudi army were discovered, causing new repressions against “unreliable elements.” Faisal's projects and the funds needed to modernize the armed forces fighting the war in North Yemen meant that the king's personal expenses had to be reduced. On March 28, 1964, by decree of the royal council and the ulema council, the king's powers and his personal budget were cut (Crown Prince Faisal was declared regent, and Saud a nominal ruler). Saud, who regarded this as an act of arbitrariness, tried to gain support from influential circles in order to regain power, but was unsuccessful. On November 2, 1964, Saud was removed by members of the royal family, whose decision was confirmed by a fatwa (religious decree) of the Ulema Council. On November 4, 1964, Saud signed his abdication and in January 1965 went into exile in Europe. This decision ended a decade of internal and external instability and further consolidated conservative forces within the country. Faisal ibn al-Aziz al-Faisal al-Saud was proclaimed the new king, retaining the post of prime minister. In March 1965, he appointed his half-brother, Prince Khalid bin Abdulaziz al-Saud, as the new heir.
Faisal declared his priority task to be the modernization of the kingdom. His first decrees were aimed at protecting the state and nation from potential internal and external threats that could hinder the development of the kingdom. Carefully but decisively, Faisal followed the path of introducing Western technologies in industry and the social sphere. Under him, the reform of the education and health care systems developed, and national television appeared. After the death of the Grand Mufti in 1969, a reform of religious institutions was carried out, a system of religious bodies controlled by the king was created (the Council of the Assembly of Leading Ulema, the Supreme Council of Kadi, the Administration of Scientific (Religious) Research, Decision Making (Fatwas), Propaganda and Leadership, etc.).

In foreign policy, Faisal made great progress in resolving border disputes. In August 1965, a final agreement was reached on the demarcation of the borders between Saudi Arabia and Jordan. That same year, Saudi Arabia agreed on the future contours of the border with Qatar. In December 1965, an agreement was signed on the delimitation of the continental shelf between Saudi Arabia and Bahrain on joint rights to the Abu Saafa offshore field. In October 1968, a similar agreement on the continental shelf was signed with Iran.

In 1965, Saudi Arabia and Egypt organized a meeting of representatives of the Yemeni warring parties, at which an agreement was reached between Egyptian President Nasser and King Faisal of Saudi Arabia to end foreign military intervention in the affairs of the YAR. However, hostilities soon resumed with renewed vigor. Egypt has accused Saudi Arabia of continuing to provide military assistance to supporters of Yemen's deposed imam and announced a suspension of the withdrawal of its troops from the country. Egyptian aircraft attacked bases of Yemeni monarchists in southern Saudi Arabia. Faisal's government responded by closing several Egyptian banks, after which Egypt proceeded to confiscate all property owned by Saudi Arabia in Egypt. Saudi Arabia itself has seen a number of terrorist attacks targeting the royal family and citizens of the United States and Great Britain. 17 Yemenis were publicly executed on charges of sabotage. The number of political prisoners in the country in 1967 reached 30 thousand people.

Any sympathies that Faisal might have felt for King Hussein of Jordan as a fellow monarch and an opponent of all revolutions, Marxism and republicanism, were overshadowed by the traditional rivalry between the Saudis and the Hashemites. However, in August 1965, the 40-year dispute between Saudi Arabia and Jordan over the border was resolved: Saudi Arabia recognized Jordan's claims to the port city of Aqaba.

The Egyptian and Saudi differences were not resolved until the Khartoum Conference of Arab Heads of State in August 1967. This was preceded by the Third Arab-Israeli War (Six Day War, 1967), during which the Saudi government declared its support for Egypt and sent its own to Jordan. military units (20 thousand soldiers, who, however, did not take part in the hostilities). Along with this, Faisal's government resorted to economic pressure: an embargo was declared on oil exports to the United States and Great Britain. However, the embargo did not last long. At the Khartoum Conference, the heads of government of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Libya decided to annually allocate 135 million pounds to the “victim states of aggression” (UAR, Jordan). Art. to restore their economy. At the same time, the embargo on oil exports was lifted. In exchange for economic assistance, Egypt agreed to withdraw its troops from North Yemen. The civil war in YAR continued until 1970, when Saudi Arabia recognized the republican government, withdrew all its troops from the country and stopped military assistance to the monarchists.

With the end of the civil war in YAR, Saudi Arabia faced a new external threat - the revolutionary regime in the People's Republic of South Yemen (PRY). King Faisal provided support to South Yemeni opposition groups who fled to YAR and Saudi Arabia after 1967. At the end of 1969, armed clashes broke out between PRSY and Saudi Arabia over the Al-Wadeyah oasis. The reason for the escalation of the crisis was the supposed oil fields and water reserves in the region.

In the same year, the authorities prevented a coup attempt prepared by Air Force officers; about 300 people were arrested and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. High wages and benefits eased discontent in the officer corps.

In 1970, Shiite riots again occurred in Qatif, which were so serious that the city was blocked for a month.
The Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation concluded between the USSR and Iraq in 1972 increased Faisal's fears and pushed him to try to unite neighboring countries into a coalition to fight the "communist threat."

New disputes with neighbors were caused by the formation of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 1971. Having made the solution to the Buraimi issue a condition for its recognition, Saudi Arabia refused to recognize the new state. Only in August 1974, after lengthy negotiations, was it possible to resolve most of the issues regarding the Al-Buraimi oasis. As a result of the agreement, Saudi Arabia recognized the rights of Abu Dhabi and Oman to the oasis, and in turn received the territory of Sabha Bita in the southern part of Abu Dhabi, two small islands and the right to build a road and an oil pipeline through Abu Dhabi to the Gulf coast.

During the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, Saudi Arabia sent small military units to participate in military operations on the Syrian and Egyptian fronts. At the end of the war, the country provided Egypt and Syria with free financial assistance, reduced oil production and supplies to countries that supported Israel in October-December, and established a (temporary) embargo on oil exports to the United States and the Netherlands, in order to force them to change their policies in the Arab world. Israeli conflict. The oil embargo and the 4-fold increase in oil prices contributed to the strengthening of the economies of Arab oil-producing states. With the signing of the 1974 armistice agreements between Israel, Egypt and Syria (both mediated by US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger) and the visit to Saudi Arabia (June 1974) of US President Richard M. Nixon, Saudi Arabia's relations with the United States were normalized. The country has made efforts to reduce the rise in world oil prices.
Saudi Arabia under Khaled (1975-1982). On March 25, 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by one of his nephews, Prince Faisal ibn Musaid, who had returned to the country after studying at an American university. The killer was arrested, declared insane and sentenced to death by beheading. The king's brother, Khaled ibn Abdul Aziz al-Saud (1913-1982), ascended the throne. Due to Khalid's poor health, virtually all executive power was transferred to Crown Prince Fahd ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud. The new government continued Faisal's conservative policies, increasing spending on the development of transport, industry and education. Thanks to huge oil revenues and its military-strategic position, the kingdom's role in regional politics and international economic and financial affairs has increased. The agreement concluded in 1977 between King Khaled and US President Ford further strengthened US-Saudi relations. At the same time, the Saudi government condemned the peace agreements between Israel and Egypt concluded in 1978-1979 and broke off diplomatic relations with Egypt (restored in 1987).

Saudi Arabia was influenced by the rising tide of Islamic fundamentalism that followed the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1978-1979. In 1978, large anti-government protests again took place in Qatif, accompanied by arrests and executions. Tensions in Saudi society were exposed in November 1979, when armed Muslim oppositionists led by Juhayman al-Otaibi seized the al-Haram mosque in Mecca, one of the Muslim shrines. The rebels were supported by part of the local population, as well as hired workers and students of some religious educational institutions. The rebels accused the ruling regime of corruption, apostasy from the original principles of Islam and the spread of the Western way of life. The mosque was liberated by Saudi troops after two weeks of fighting in which more than 300 people were killed. The seizure of the Great Mosque and the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran provoked new protests by Shiite dissidents, which were also suppressed by troops and the National Guard. In response to these speeches, Crown Prince Fahd announced plans in early 1980 to create an Advisory Council, which, however, was not formed until 1993, and to modernize governance in the Eastern Province.

To provide external protection to its allies, the United States in 1981 agreed to sell Saudi Arabia several AWACS airborne surveillance systems, which caused a negative reaction in Israel, which feared an upset of the military balance in the Middle East. That same year, Saudi Arabia took part in the creation of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a group of six Arabian Gulf countries.
On the other hand, in an effort to counter internal threats from religious extremists, the Saudi Arabian government began to actively assist Islamist movements in various regions of the world, and primarily in Afghanistan. This policy coincided with a sharp increase in income from oil exports - between 1973 and 1978, Saudi Arabia's annual profits grew from 4.3 to 34.5 billion dollars.

Modern Saudi Arabia.

In June 1982, King Khaled died and Fahd became king and prime minister. Another brother, Prince Abdullah, commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named crown prince and first deputy prime minister. King Fahd's brother, Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al-Saud (b. 1928), Minister of Defense and Aviation, became second deputy prime minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy faced serious problems. The decline in global oil demand and prices that began in 1981 led to a reduction in Saudi oil production from 9 million barrels per day in 1980 to 2.3 million barrels in 1985; revenues from oil exports decreased from $101 billion to $22 billion. The balance of payments deficit in 1985 amounted to $20 billion, and foreign exchange reserves also decreased. All this led to the aggravation of many internal political, social and religious contradictions, fueled by the tense foreign policy situation in the region.

Throughout the Iran-Iraq War, during which Saudi Arabia supported the Iraqi government economically and politically, followers of Ayatollah Khomeini repeatedly organized riots in an attempt to disrupt the annual Hajj to Mecca. Saudi Arabia's tight security measures have usually prevented major incidents. In response to the unrest of Iranian pilgrims that occurred in Mecca in March 1987, the country's government decided to reduce their number to 45 thousand people per year. This caused an extremely negative reaction from the Iranian leadership. In July 1987, about 25 thousand Iranian pilgrims tried to block the entrance to the Haram mosque (Beit Ullah), engaging in battle with security forces. More than 400 people died as a result of the riots. Khomeini called for the overthrow of the Saudi royal house to avenge the death of the pilgrims. The Saudi government has accused Iran of staging insurgencies to support its demand for extraterritoriality.
Mecca and Medina. This incident, along with Iranian air raids on Saudi oil tankers in the Persian Gulf in 1984, forced Saudi Arabia to sever diplomatic relations with Iran. Many terrorist attacks have been carried out on Saudi agencies abroad - most notably the offices of the national airline Saudi Arabia. The Shia groups “Party of God in Hejaz”, “Faithful Soldiers” and “Generation of Arab Wrath” took responsibility for the murders of Saudi diplomats. Several Saudi Shiites were convicted and executed for bombing Saudi oil facilities in 1988. In 1989, Saudi Arabia accused Iran of involvement in two terrorist attacks during the 1989 Hajj. In 1990, 16 Kuwaiti Shiites were executed for carrying out terrorist attacks. During 1988-1991, Iranians did not participate in the Hajj. Normalization of relations with Iran occurred after the death of Khomeini in 1989. In 1991, the Saudis approved a quota of 115 thousand Iranian pilgrims and allowed political demonstrations in Mecca. During the Hajj in 1990, more than 1,400 pilgrims were trampled to death or suffocated in an underground tunnel that connects Mecca with one of the sanctuaries. The incident, however, was not related to Iran.

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 had significant military, political and economic consequences for Saudi Arabia. Having completed the occupation of Kuwait, Iraqi troops began concentrating on the border with Saudi Arabia. To counter the Iraqi military threat, Saudi Arabia mobilized and sought military assistance from the United States. Fahd's government allowed the temporary deployment of thousands of American and allied military forces on Saudi territory. At the same time, the country hosted approx. 400 thousand refugees from Kuwait. During this period, in order to compensate for the loss of oil supplies from Iraq and Kuwait, Saudi Arabia repeatedly increased its own oil production. King Fahd personally played a huge role during the Gulf War, using his influence to convince many Arab states to join the anti-Iraqi coalition. During the Gulf War (1991), Saudi Arabia was repeatedly shelled by Iraq. At the end of January 1991, Iraqi units captured the Saudi cities of Wafra and Khafji. The battles for these cities were called the largest battle against enemy forces in the history of the country. Saudi forces participated in other military operations, including the liberation of Kuwait.
After the Gulf War, the Saudi Arabian government came under intense pressure from Islamic radicals who demanded political reforms, strict adherence to Sharia law, and the withdrawal of Western, especially American, troops from the holy land of Arabia. Petitions were sent to King Fahd calling for greater government powers, greater public participation in political life, and greater economic justice. These actions were followed by the creation in May 1993 of the “Committee for the Protection of Legal Rights.” However, the government soon banned this organization, dozens of its members were arrested, and King Fahd demanded that the Islamists stop anti-government agitation.

Pressure from liberals and conservatives forced King Fahd to begin political reforms. On February 29, 1992, at an official meeting of the government, three royal decrees were adopted (“Fundamentals of the system of power”, “Regulations on the Advisory Council” and “System of the territorial structure”), which established the general principles of government and governance of the country. In addition to them, in September 1993, the king adopted the “Act of Establishment of the Advisory Council,” according to which members of the Advisory Council were appointed and its powers were clarified. In December 1993, the first meeting of the Advisory Council took place. In the same year, reform of the Council of Ministers and administrative reform were announced. According to the royal decree, the country was divided into 13 provinces, headed by emirs appointed by the king. Also in 1993, the members of 13 provincial councils and the principles of their activities were announced. In 1994, the provinces were in turn divided into 103 districts.

In October 1994, as a counterbalance to the Council of Ulema, an advisory body of extremely conservative theologians, the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs, consisting of members of the royal family and members appointed by the king (headed by the Minister of Defense Sultan), was formed, as well as the Council for Islamic Queries and Guidance (led by Minister of Islamic Affairs Abdullah al-Turki).

The war with Iraq seriously affected the country's economy. Economic problems became apparent in 1993 when the United States insisted that Saudi Arabia pay for American expenses during the Gulf War. According to experts, this war cost the country $70 billion. Low oil prices did not allow Saudi Arabia to compensate for financial losses. Budget deficits and falling oil prices in the 1980s forced the Saudi government to cut social spending and reduce the kingdom's foreign investments. Despite its own economic difficulties, Saudi Arabia thwarted Iranian plans to artificially raise oil prices in March 1994.

War against terrorism.

However, attempts at structural reforms have failed to resolve the contradictions that have simmered in Saudi society. Coalition troops withdrew from Saudi Arabia at the end of 1991; About 6 thousand American military personnel remained in the country. Their stay on Saudi soil was in blatant contradiction with the tenets of Wahhabism. In November 1995, the first terrorist attack against American citizens occurred in Riyadh - a bomb exploded in a car parked near the Saudi Arabian National Guard Program Office building; 7 people were killed and 42 wounded. In June 1996, after the execution of 4 Islamists who organized the bombing, a new attack followed. On June 25, 1996, a fuel tanker was exploded near a US military base in Dhahran. The explosion killed 19 American troops and injured 515 people, incl. 240 US citizens. The Movement for Islamic Change in the Arab Peninsula - Jihad Wing, as well as two previously unknown groups, the Gulf Tigers and the Fighting Defenders of Allah, claimed responsibility for the attacks. While the government has condemned the attacks, many prominent Saudis and religious groups have voiced their opposition to the US military presence in Saudi Arabia. In November 1996, 40 Saudis were accused of complicity in a terrorist attack and were imprisoned for several months. In December of the same year, the government approved additional security measures for American facilities in the country.

Relations between Saudi Arabia and the United States deteriorated further after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington. This was due to the fact that most of the participants in the attack (15 out of 19) were citizens of the Saudi kingdom. In September 2001, Saudi Arabia broke off diplomatic relations with the Taliban Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. At the same time, the government of Saudi Arabia denied the United States the right to use American military bases located on its territory to carry out operations against terrorists. In Saudi Arabia itself, debates arose about the role of the religious clergy, some of whose representatives spoke from openly anti-American and anti-Western positions. Voices began to be heard in society in favor of revising some concepts of the religious doctrine underlying the Wahhabi movement. In December 2001, King Fahd called for the eradication of terrorism as a phenomenon that does not correspond to the norms of Islam. The government has frozen the accounts of a number of individuals and entities, including some Saudi charities. Information provided by Saudi intelligence helped dismantle 50 companies in 25 countries through which the Al-Qaeda international terrorist network was financed.
American pressure on Saudi Arabia increased in August 2002, when about 3 thousand relatives of victims of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 filed a lawsuit against 186 defendants, incl. foreign banks, Islamic funds and members of the royal family of Saudi Arabia. All of them were suspected of involvement in helping Islamic extremists. At the same time, it was alleged that Saudi Arabia was colluding with terrorists. All accusations from the American side were rejected by the Saudi authorities; In protest of the prosecution, some Saudi investors have threatened to withdraw their monetary assets from the United States. In November 2002, the US CIA distributed among bankers around the world a list of 12 Saudi entrepreneurs whom Washington suspects of financing the international terrorist network of Al-Qaeda. This comes amid demands from a number of US congressmen to conduct an in-depth investigation into reports that Saudi Arabia provided funds to 19 terrorists who carried out attacks on the US on September 11, 2001. Meanwhile, within the US administration itself, there appeared to be no consensus on how much pressure should be applied to Saudi Arabia. Speaking in Mexico City, US Secretary of State Colin Powell stressed that the United States must be careful not to allow “a severance of relations with a country that has been a good partner of the United States for many years and remains a strategic partner of America.”

In Saudi Arabia itself, the voices of supporters of reform were becoming increasingly louder. In 2003, petitions were sent to King Fahd demanding democratization of political life, freedom of speech, judicial independence, constitutional revision, economic reforms, elections to the Consultative Council and the creation of civil institutions. Amid worsening relations with the United States, the Saudi Arabian government has taken unprecedented steps to reform the system. In 2003, it was announced that local elections would be held and that two human rights organizations would be created (one under the patronage of the government, the other independent). Identity cards for women were introduced. That same year, the country's first human rights conference was held in Riyadh, which addressed the issue of human rights in the context of Islamic law.

The Iraq War (2003) caused deep divisions in the Arab world. Initially, Saudi Arabia's position regarding US plans to overthrow the regime of Saddam Hussein was irreconcilable. In August 2002, the country's authorities announced that they would not allow the use of American facilities located on the territory of the kingdom to launch attacks on Iraq, even if these attacks were authorized by the UN. Moreover, in October 2002, Saudi Arabia (for the first time since the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait) opened the border with Iraq. In preparation for war, the Saudi Arabian government made repeated attempts to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict. However, at the beginning of 2003, Riyadh's position changed dramatically. Already during the Iraq War, the Saudi government expressed its support to the United States by allowing coalition forces to use American airstrips and military bases located in the country. After the end of hostilities, Saudi Arabia participated in the conference on the restoration of Iraq (October 2003, Madrid), at which it announced that it would allocate $1 billion for the restoration of the neighboring state (500 million will be represented by project financing, and another 500 million - commodity export).

In April 2003, the United States announced that it would withdraw most of its troops from Saudi Arabia, since their presence was no longer needed with the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime. The presence of a foreign army in an extremely conservative Islamic country was a strong irritating factor that played into the hands of Islamic radicalism. One of the main reasons for the attacks of September 11, 2001, according to Saudi terrorist Osama bin Laden, was the presence of American troops in the homeland of Islam's holy sites, Medina and Mecca. The new war in Iraq (2003) contributed to the further activation of radical Islamists. On May 12, 2003, in Riyadh, suicide bombers carried out four attacks on a complex of buildings housing foreigners; 34 people were killed and 160 were injured. On the night of November 8-9, 2003, a group of suicide bombers organized a new attack. During it, 18 people were killed and more than 130 were injured, mostly foreign workers from the Middle East. Al-Qaeda is believed to have been behind all the attacks. The US and other countries have again questioned Saudi Arabia's commitment to fighting terrorism. In July 2003, the US Congress issued a strong statement on the issue of Saudi Arabia's financing of terrorist organizations and the harboring of government officials related to the attacks of September 11, 2001. Although the Saudi government arrested a large number of terrorist suspects in 2002, the country, according to international experts, -still remains a stronghold of Islamic radicalism.

On August 1, 2005, King Fahd of Saudi Arabia died. And about. Crown Prince Abdullah, Fahd's brother, became ruler.

“The land of two mosques” (Mecca and Medina) is another name for Saudi Arabia. The form of government of this state is an absolute monarchy. Geographical information, a brief history and information about the political structure of Saudi Arabia will help you get a general idea of ​​this country.

General information

Saudi Arabia is the largest state on the Arabian Peninsula. In the north it borders with Iraq, Kuwait and Jordan, in the east with the UAE and Qatar, in the southeast with Oman, and in the south with Yemen. It owns more than 80 percent of the peninsula's territory, as well as several islands in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.

More than half of the country's territory is occupied by the Rub al-Khali desert. In addition, to the north is part of the Syrian Desert, and to the south is An-Nafud, another large desert. The plateau in the center of the country is crossed by several rivers, which usually dry up during the hot season.

Saudi Arabia is exceptionally rich in oil. The government partly invests profits from the sale of “black gold” in the development of the country, partly invests in industrialized countries and uses it to provide loans to other Arab powers.

The form of government of Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy. Islam is recognized as the state religion. Arabic is the official language.

The name of the country was given by the ruling dynasty - the Saudis. Its capital is the city of Riyadh. The country's population is 22.7 million, predominantly Arab.

Early history of Arabia

In the first millennium BC, the Minaan kingdom was located on the shores of the Red Sea. On the east coast was Dilmun, which was considered a political-cultural federation in the region.

In 570, an event occurred that determined the future fate of the Arabian Peninsula - Muhammad, the future prophet, was born in Mecca. His teaching literally turned the history of these lands upside down and subsequently influenced the peculiarities of the form of government of Saudi Arabia and the culture of the country.

The prophet's followers, known as caliphs (caliphs), conquered almost all the territories of the Middle East, bringing Islam. However, with the advent of the caliphate, the capital of which was first Damascus, and later Baghdad, the significance of the prophet’s homeland gradually lost importance. At the end of the 13th century, the territory of Saudi Arabia was almost entirely under Egyptian rule, and two and a half centuries later these lands were transferred to the Ottoman Porte.

The emergence of Saudi Arabia

In the middle of the 17th century, the state of Najd appeared, which managed to achieve independence from the Porte. In the middle of the 19th century, Riyadh became its capital. But the civil war that broke out a few years later led to the fact that the weakened country was divided among neighboring powers.

In 1902, the son of the sheikh of the Dirayah oasis, Abdul Aziz ibn Saud, managed to take Riyadh. Four years later, almost all of Najd was under his control. In 1932, emphasizing the special importance of the royal house in history, he officially gave the country the name Saudi Arabia. The state's form of government allowed the Saudis to gain ground on its territory.

Since the middle of the last century, this state has become the main ally and strategic partner of the United States in the Middle East region.

Saudi Arabia: form of government

The Constitution of this state officially proclaims the Koran and Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad. However, in Saudi Arabia, the form of government and general principles of authority are determined by the Basic Nizam (law), which came into force in 1992.

This act contains a provision that Saudi Arabia is a sovereign system of government in which it is monarchical. country is based on Sharia law.

The king of the ruling Saudi family is also the religious leader and the highest authority over all forms of authority. At the same time, he holds the post of Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the army, has the right to make appointments to all important civil and military posts, and to declare war in the country. He also ensures that the overall political direction is consistent with Islamic norms and monitors the implementation of Sharia principles.

Government departments

Executive power in the state is exercised by the Council of Ministers. The king holds the post of its chairman, and it is he who is responsible for its formation and reorganization. The Nizams, approved by the Council of Ministers, implement royal decrees. Ministers head the relevant ministries and departments, for the activities of which they are responsible to the king.

It is also carried out by the king, under whom an Advisory Council with advisory rights operates. The members of this council express their opinions on the Nizam's projects adopted by the ministers. The Chairman of the Advisory Council and sixty of its members are also appointed by the King (for four years).

The Supreme Judicial Council is at the head of the judiciary. On the recommendation of this council, the king appoints and dismisses judges.

Saudi Arabia, whose form of government and government is based on the almost absolute power of the king and reverence for the Islamic religion, officially has neither trade unions nor political parties. Serving a religion other than Islam is also prohibited here.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, whose population dates back to the second millennium BC (it was then that the indigenous Arab tribes occupied the entire Arabian Peninsula), is today a major member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. The state ranks second in the world in the production and export of oil and petroleum products. In addition, referring to Mecca and Medina - the main holy cities of Islam - Saudi Arabia is called the Land of the Two Holy Mosques. It is the rich deposits of black gold and the penetration of religion into many areas of life that distinguish the kingdom.

General information about Saudi Arabia

The state from where Islam spread occupies about 80% of the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Most of the country is occupied by desert areas, foothills and mountains of medium height, so that less than 1% of the land is suitable for cultivation. The Arabian Peninsula is one of the few places on Earth where summer temperatures consistently exceed 50 degrees.

The capital of Saudi Arabia is Riyadh. Other major cities are Jeddah, Mecca, Medina, Em-Dammam, Al-Hofuf. There are 27 settlements with a population of more than 100 thousand people, four millionaire cities. The capital of Saudi Arabia is traditionally not only the administrative, but also the political, scientific, educational and business center of the country. Religious and cultural centers, shrines of the state - Mecca and Medina.

The official symbols are the Saudi flag, coat of arms and anthem. The flag is a green cloth with a sword, symbolizing the victories of the founder of the state, and an inscription - the Muslim symbol of faith (shahadah). Interestingly, the flag of Saudi Arabia is never flown at half-mast on occasions of mourning. Also, the image cannot be applied to clothing and souvenirs, since the Shahada is considered sacred for Muslims.

The king of Saudi Arabia who rules the state today is a direct descendant of the first king, Abdul Aziz. The power of Salman ibn Abdul-Aziz Al Saud from the Saudi dynasty is actually limited only by Sharia law. Important government decisions are made by the king after consultation with a group of religious leaders and other respected members of Saudi society.

Current demographic situation

The population of Saudi Arabia as of 2014 was 27.3 million people. About 30% of them are visitors, while the indigenous population is made up of Arab Saudis. After a brief stabilization of demographic indicators in 2000 at around 20 million people, the population of Saudi Arabia began to grow again. In general, the dynamics of the population of the kingdom do not show sharp jumps in population size.

Other relevant demographic indicators for Saudi Arabia are:

• birth rate - 18.8 per 1000 people;
• mortality - 3.3 per 1000 people;
• the total fertility rate is 2.2 children per woman;
• natural population growth - 15.1;
• migration population growth is 5.1 per 1000 people.

Density of inhabitants and pattern of settlement

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers an area of ​​2,149,610 square kilometers. In terms of territory, the state is 12th in the world and the first among the countries of the Arabian Peninsula. These data, as well as an approximate estimate of the population for 2015, make it possible to calculate the value of population density. The figure is 12 people per square kilometer.

Most of Saudi Arabia's population is concentrated in cities. Firstly, the relief and climate of the Arabian Peninsula make it possible to live comfortably only within the oases, around which the largest cities of the state were once formed. Secondly, a significant share of the urban population is due to the structure of the economy, where agriculture occupies an extremely small part, due to the tiny percentage of land suitable for growing plants and livestock.

The kingdom's urbanization rate is 82.3% and the corresponding rate is 2.4% per year. More than five million people live in the capital of Saudi Arabia. The total population of the remaining three million-dollar cities amounts to another six million Saudis. Thus, the four largest cities of the kingdom are home to eleven million people out of 31.5 (estimated for 2015), which is equal to approximately 35% of the country's inhabitants.

Religious affiliation of the population

Saudi Arabia, whose population is highly religious, is officially an Islamic state. Islam as the state religion is enshrined in the first article of the Basic Law of the state. 92.8% of Saudi Arabia's population is Muslim. By the way, tourists who do not profess Islam are prohibited from entering Mecca and Medina.

The second most followed religion in the kingdom is Christianity. The number of Christians is about 1.2 million, the majority of whom are foreigners. Quite often, cases of oppression of adherents of other religions (non-Muslims) are recorded in the country - Saudi Arabia is in sixth place among the states where the rights of Christians are most often oppressed.

Atheism in the kingdom is considered a grave sin and equated to terrorism, so it is impossible to estimate the exact number of non-believers in the country. The American Institute of Public Opinion, based on surveys, provides the following data: 5% of Saudis are convinced atheists, about 19% call themselves non-believers. Profile publications publish smaller figures, indicating only 0.7% in the “atheists and non-believers” column.

Sex and age structure of the population

Saudi Arabia, whose population is mostly of working age, is distinguished by a progressive (or growing) type of age-sex pyramid. This is better seen in a simplified diagram, where only three categories of citizens are distinguished: children and adolescents (up to 14 years of age), the working population (from 15 to 65 years old) and elderly people (over 65 years old).

There are about 22 million working-age people, accounting for 67.6% of the total Saudi population. There are 9.6 million children and adolescents in the state, or 29.4%; elderly people account for only 3%; this group makes up 0.9 million people. In general, the dependent part of citizens (children and pensioners supported by the adult population) amounts to 32.4% of Saudis. Such indicators do not create a particularly significant social burden on society.

Saudi Arabia, whose population traditionally oppresses the fair sex, has an almost equal gender structure of the population. The country's population is 55% male and 45% female.

Women's rights in Saudi Arabia

Women's rights are severely limited in a country like Saudi Arabia. The population is deeply religious, so they follow all religious norms. Thus, women are prohibited from driving, voting, using public transport unless accompanied by a husband or male relative, and communicating with men (except for relatives and husband). Representatives of the fair sex are required to wear long dark robes, and in some regions only their eyes are allowed to be left open.

The quality of education for women in Saudi Arabia is worse than for men. In addition, female students receive smaller stipends than their male counterparts. And in general, representatives of the fair sex do not have the right to study, work or travel outside the country unless their husband or closest male relative allows them to do so. Even for rape in Saudi Arabia, the woman can be punished, not the criminal. In this case, the victim is charged with “provocation to rape” or violation of the dress code.

Saudi Arabia, whose population gives the main prerogative to men, adheres to the principles of gender segregation. For example, houses have separate entrances for women and men, restaurants are divided into several zones (women's, men's and family), special events are held separately, and classes for students of different genders are held at different times so that boys and girls do not overlap .

The King of Saudi Arabia has repeatedly stated that women will soon be granted certain rights. For example, he said that he would allow the fair sex to drive a car as soon as Saudi society is ready for this step. Of course, we will have to wait quite a long time for equal rights for women and men in Saudi society (and this is simply contrary to Islamic norms), but there are already some concessions for the fair sex.

Literacy rate of the kingdom's inhabitants

Saudi Arabia, which has a fairly literate population (94.4% of citizens over 15 can read and write), has different literacy rates for women and men. Thus, 97% of men and 91% of women can read and write, which is associated with the traditional oppression of the rights of the fair sex. However, among young people (from 15 to 24 years old), literacy rates are approximately equal: in Saudi Arabia, 99.4% and 99.3% of literate young men and women, respectively.

Culture in Saudi Arabia

The culture of the kingdom is very closely connected with the state religion. Muslims are forbidden to consume pork and alcohol, so mass celebrations are practically excluded. In addition, cinemas and theaters are prohibited in the country, but such establishments exist in areas populated mainly by foreigners. Home video viewing is very common in Saudi Arabia, and Western films are largely uncensored.

State economic structure

The country has 25% of the world's oil reserves, which determines the basis of the economy of a state such as Saudi Arabia. Oil provides almost all export revenues (90%). In the last thirty years, industry, transport, and trade have also developed, but the share of agriculture in the economy is very small.

The currency of Saudi Arabia is the Saudi Riyal. The exchange rate of the monetary unit is pegged to the US dollar at a ratio of 3.75 to 1. In conclusion, information for tourists on how the currency of Saudi Arabia is converted in terms of the currencies of other countries: 100 rial is 1500 rubles, 25 euros, 26.6 dollars United States of America.